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*4^4'^^ni.
djLJL^T "^ti* lH'2-3(
f^arbarlj College iilrrars
LIBRARY OF THE
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
COLLECTION OF TEXT-BOOKS
CONTRIBUTED BY THE PUBLISHERS
TRANSFERRED
TO
HARVA?-
L
3 2044 102 771 201
ENGLISH
ORAL AND WRITTEN
FOR HIGH SCHOOLS
BY
A. R. BRUBACHER, Ph. D.
8iq>entUendent of Schools, Schenectady , New York, formerly
Instructor in Greek in Yale University
AND
DOROTHY E. SNYDER, B. A., Pd. B.
Formerly Head of the English Department^
High School, Schenectady
NEW YORK
CHARLES E. MERRILL CO.
■t ■ .
JUL -6 1915
•ftirvAw coiicii iiMijf
^3\
COPTRXGBT, 19x0, 191a, I914, BY CRAU.S8 S. MXRIULL CQb
PREFACE
HiOH School Englisb is here considcfred as a unit.
During the secondafN^-sl^bbol period the pupil should be-
come familiar with the structure of the English language ;
he should acquire the habitual use of forceful and appro-
priate language in speaking and writing by the practice
of oral and written self-expression ; he should form a dis^
criminating taste for good literature by much reading,
together with profitable discussions regarding the form
and content of the literature read. This volume seeks to
be a guide in such work.
Composition is presented as a complete study, includ-
ing the sentence, the paragraph, and the four forms of
discourse.
The authors have sought to shift the point of emphasis
from literary composition to the practice of self-expression
by means of language. They believe that the child should
be taught to speak and write freely out of his experience
without conscious regard for formal, literary standards.
Free self-ea^esaion in oral and written language is the fun-
damental aim of composition teaching. The exercises have
been selected carefully so that they may fall within the ex-
perience and ready comprehension of high school students.
The subjects are varied to suit the needs of the varied
conditions of home and earlier training. The teacher must
often determine the availability of the subjects for the
particular class or for the individual pupil. The subject
which necessarily induces spontaneous self-expression
should always be chosen.
The chapter on Words seeks to present an analytical
study of the subject, by entering into the historical and
4 PREFACE
formal nature of language. This chapter opens the way
for much detailed work in the study of language for those
classes which have sufficient knowledge of related foreign
languages. Other classes should confine themselves to the*
more general aspect of the subject
The chapter on Criticism takes up literature from the
pupil's point of view. It discusses those matters which
will enable the pupil to understand the thought and esti*
mate the true value of a piece of writing. The aim of the
chapter is to develop critical reading. To this end the
pupil is shown how to penetrate the thought, what to de-
mand of the author, how to get at his purpose, what to
enjoy in form and sentiment, how to form a correct taste.
Typical criticisms by well-known writers, on familiar
authors and books, are given as exercises. The aim is to
give the individual reader the necessary tools for thought-
ful, enjoyable reading.
The selectionsf rom Burroughs's Birds and Poets, Fiske's
Civil Government in the United States, Heam's Glimpses
of Unfamiliar Japan, Kittredge's Introduction to ^^ng-
lish and Scottish Ballads, Palmer's Self- Cultivation in
English, Bradford's Lee in Battle, Holmes's Chambered
Nautilus, and Longfellow's Kavanagh and Sunrise on
the Hills are used by permission of and by special arrange-
ment with Houghton Mifflin Company; from Pragmatism,
by William James, by permission of Longmans, Green
& Co. ; from I%e Golden Age, by Kenneth Grahame, by
permission of the John Lane Company ; from Two Kinds
of Education for Engineers, by J. B. Johnson, by cour-
tesy of Prof. F. E. Turneaure ; from English Literature,
by W. J. Long, by permission of Ginn & Company ; from
JDiscussions in Economics and /S'lfa^is^ics, by F.A.Walker,
by permission of Henry Holt and Company ; from The
World's Greatest Short Stories^ by courtesy of Sherwin
PREFACE 6
Cody and A. C. McClurg & Co. ; from Hudson's IdUDays
in Patagonia and McLaughlin's History of the AmeT"
ican Nation, by permission of D. Appleton and Company;
from The Literary Digest^ " Raising the Maine," by per-
mission of Funk & Wagnalls Company ; from The Spec-
tator^ by permission of The Outlook Company; from Van
Dyke's The Blue Flower^ Brander Matthews's Parts of
Speech in Essays on English^ Gordy's History of the
United States^ and Stevenson's Markheim and Letters to
Sidney Colvin and to Middleton, by permission of Charles
Scribner's Sons ; and from Bryce's American Common-
wealthy and Ream's KoUd^ by permission of the Mao-
millan Company.
A. R. Brubagheb
DoBOTHT E. Snyder
Schenectady, N. F.,
December 1, I91S
CONTENTS
OnARBt Paw
I. Oral Compobition 9
II. Review of Capitalization and Punctuation . . 37
III. Lbtteb Wrttino 57
IV. Written Composition : Narration 75
y. Debcription Ill
VI. Exposition 145
VII. Argumentation 176
Vni. Words 223
IX. Sentences 254
X. Paragraphs 275
XI. Criticism 304
XII. Literary Forms 323
Xni. Figures of Speech 351
XIV. Prosody 362
APPENDIX A. Sentences for Correction 373
APPENDIX B. Sounds, Letters, and Syllables • • • 377
ENGLISH: ORAL AND WRITTEN
CHAPTER I
ORAL COMPOSITION
Who lacks the art to shape his thoughts, I hold.
Were little poorer if he lacked the thought.
T. B. Aldrich.
1. Introduction. Whenever we put our thoughts
and feelings into words in a clear, logical, connected
way, we are producing a composition. We may give
expression to thoughts in a sentence, in a paragraph,
or in a number of paragraphs ; in each case we are
composing.
2. Oral Composition. You have been accus-
tomed to think, perhaps, that only written work
constitutes composition ; but every spoken sentence,
whether part of a conversation, of a recitation, or
of an elaborate address, is composition too, and
deserving of the same careful construction. Oral
expression is more important than written, because
it is more common and because the author's person-
ality enters into it more forcefully. If you watch
your spoken thoughts, aiming to be accurate and
fluent in expressing yourself, you will become a
good writer. Hence, it is necessary that you guard
your daily speech both in and out of school, and in
10 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
ycmr history and science recitations as well as in
your English recitation.
3. Kinds of Oral Composition. There are many
different kinds of oral composition^ ranging all the
way from informal, every-day conversation to the
most formal address. It is this informal oral com-
position, including conversation, the classroom reci-
tation, reports, and reproductions, which should
be of special interest to you. This you are using
constantly. Moreover, mastery in this will lead to
efi&ciency in the formal type of composition.
4. Conversation. The least formal kind of
composition is conversation. As this is the most
natural and the most frequent form of expression, it
is here that habits of speech are formed — habits,
as we have seen, which affect all composition work,
written as well as oral. Therefore, you should admit
to your conversation and spoken English only such
expressions as will make for the best use of the
mother tongue. It is an easy matter to watch con-
versation English, for the sentences are for the most
part simple, and the individual remarks brief. Be-
sides, conversation takes place between two or more
people and the effort is divided.
5. Slang. The danger of using slang phrases is
obvious. They are sure to reappear in unguarded
moments when one does not want to use them. This
is due to the fact that slang impoverishes the vo-
cabulary by taking the place of good words. Con-
sequently, when a person does not want to use the
ORAL COMPOSITION It
slang expression, he finds that he has no suitable
words to express his meaning.
Besides preventing the growth of vocabulary^
slang has a tendency to weaken the power of dis-
crimination. So insistent is the slang phrase that it
responds on all occasions, not in one sense but in
many, until finally it has no individuality whatever.
Thus the meaning of slang expressions is constantly
changing ; the words themselves soon become worn
out and give way to the newly coined slang. Because^
then, slang is in a constant state of change, it should
be avoided.
A last reason urged against slang should, in it-
self, be sufficient to keep you from using it. Slang
is for the most part vulgar, and its use indicates a
lack of culture and refinement.
6. Provincial and Obsolete English. There are
other forms of expression that should generally be
excluded from one's vocabulary. These are expres*
sions which are not universally understood, either
because they have never come into general use or
because they have gone out of general use ; that is,
they are not standard words. They are termed local
ot provincial if they have come into use in certain
localities only ; obsolete if they have gone out of
general use. Some such expressions become fairly
well established in colloquial speech, but even these
will seldom be heard among people who use the best
English.
12 mOH SCHOOL ENGLISH
Exercise 1
1. Make a list of provincialisms in yoar locality.
2. Give an oral reprodaction of a short conversation
you have heard or taken part in, that has interested you.
It may have been about a recent storm, the last book you
have read, the prospects for a good football game, the
best candidate for class president, or some other subject
of current interest.
8. Bring to class a list of slang phrases you have heard
recently. Give orally in class the sense in which each
was used, and in each case supply standard words to ex-
press the idea.
4. Repeat a conversation you have heard recently, upon
8ome important news item.
5. Sead the following. Reproduce it orally, using di-
rect discourse as far as possible.
The appearance of Rip soon attracted the attention of the
tavern politicians. The orator bustled up to him and inquired
'<0n which side he voted?'* Rip stared in vacant stupidity.
Another short bat busy little fellow palled him by the arm, and,
risiDg on tiptoe, inqaired in his ear, '^ Whether he was Federal
or Democrat ? " Rip was equally at a loss to comprehend the
question ; when a knowing, self-important old gentleman made
his way through the crowd and demanded in an austere tone
what had brought him to the election with a gun on his shoul-
der, and a mob at his heels, and whether he meant to breed a
riot in the village? — '^ Alas! gentlemen,*' cried Rip, somewhat
dismayed, " I am a poor quiet man, a native of the place, and
a loyal subject to the king, Grod bless him I '*
Here a general shout burst from the by-standers — ^' A tory I
a tory ! a spy ! a refugee ! hustle him I away with him ! '* It
was with difficulty that the self-important man restored order ;
ORAL COMPOSITION IS
and demanded again of the onknown culprit, what he came
there for, and whom he wae seeking. The poor man humbly
assured him that he merely came there in search of his neigh*
bors, who used to keep about the tavern.
" Well — who are they ? — name them."
Rip bethought himself a moment and inquired, *^ Where *s
NichoUsVedder?"
An old man replied in a thin, piping voice, '' Nicholas Vedder !
why he is dead and gone these eighteen years."
« Where *8 Brom Dutcher ? "
^ Oh, he went off to the army in the beginning of the war;
some say he was killed at the storming of Stony Point — others
say he was drowned in a squall at the foot of Anthony's Nose.
I don't know — he never came back again."
" Where 's Van Bummel, the school-master ? "
^ He went off to the wars too, was a great militia general,
and is now in Congress."
Rip's heart died away at hearing these sad changes in his
home and friends, and finding himself thus alone in the world.
Every answer puzzled him too, — he had no courage to ask
after any more of his friends bat cried out in despair, *' Does
anybody here know Rip Van Winkle ? "
"Oh, Rip Van Winkle!" exclaimed two or three, "Oh, to
be sure ! That 's Rip Van Winkle yonder, leaning against the
tree."
Rip looked, and beheld a precise counterpart of himself, as
he went up the mountain : apparently as lazy, and certainly as
ragged. In the midst of his bewilderment, the self-important
man demanded who he was and what was his name.
" God knows," exclaimed he, at his wits' end ; " I 'm not my-
self — I'm somebody else — that's me yonder — no — ^that's
somebody else got into my shoes — I was myself last night, but
I fell asleep ou the mountain^ and they 've changed my goo^
14 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLIJ5H
and eveiything 'b changed, and I 'm changed, and I can't tell
mj name or who I am ! "
Adapted from Ibving's Ths Sketch Book.
6. In the above passage point out the contractions and
expressions used in the conversation English which would
not be used in dignified written discourse. Are these ex-
pressions out of place here ? Give reasons for your con-
clusion.
7. Would all the expressions in the above be appropri-
ate to oZZ conversation? Explain your answer.
7. Grammar In Oral English. In the effort to
improve your oral language^ much attention must be
given to grammar. You should not, however, think
too much about grammar or about how to express
yourself; for if you do, you cannot think about
your subject, which is, after all, of prime impor-
tance. What you are thinking will lose interest for
your hearers if your mind is engaged too much with
how you are going to say what you think. It is
therefore necessary to cultivate right habits of
speech, so that the words will naturally assume cor-
rect grammatical form. This can best be done by
watching for some one error at a time. This need
not interfere with ready thinking and ready speak-
ing. The application of the most important rules of
grammar will rather assist both in keeping the
thought clear and in making the language express
exactly the thought intended. Clear expression can-
not result when singular verbs are used with plural
subjects^ when pronouns are not given their proper
ORAL COMPOSITION 15
eases or are not in agreement with their antecedents,
or when wrong tenses of verbs interrupt the train
of thought. Other errors, such as improper contrac-
tions like ^^ he don't " or the use of the past parti-
ciple for the past tense, indicate such a slovenly
use of English that you should be ashamed to give
utterance to them. Remember that you are judged
by your speech, and that the use of correct English
is an indication of refinement and education.
8. Contractions in Oral English. There are
expressions, not ungrammatical, which may be used
in oral English but which would rarely be used in
written composition. They are the contractions of
cannot to can^t, does not to does rCty it is to it 's.
They give naturalness to the oral expression, but
in orderly written composition such words should
be written out in full.
9* Enunciation and Pronunciation. In trying
to improve your oral language, you should strive
for correct pronunciation and clear enunciation.
Both are essential if you would be understood with
ease and listened to with enjoyment. Many people
cut their words short and run them together in such
a way that, if the hearer is not familiar with their
manner of speech, he must make a special effort to
understand what they say. Even if "What-chu-
doin' " is understood to mean ^^ What are you do-
ing," nevertheless the use of such language stamps
the speaker as careless. Words ending in -ing are
particularly liable to contractions of this kind and
16 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
should be watched. It requires an effort to gain a
clear enunciation, but the effort is worth while. The
first step toward the goal is to avoid hurried speaking.
For correct pronunciation, you must make sure
that a word is properly accented and has the cor-
rect sound values. It is necessary to consult the
dictionary frequently, to study the diacritical marks
(see p. 378), and then to use the correct sounds in
your every-day language. Correct pronunciation is
even more important than distinct enunciation ; for
incorrect pronunciation indicates ignorance, while
indistinct enunciation merely shows carelessness.
Both require watchfulness, but the improvement in
your spoken language will doubly repay the effort
KXEBGISE 2
1. Study Exercise 1 (p. 382). As these are words which
you have occasion to use in ordinary conversation, be sure
you can pronounce them correctly. When in doubt con-
sult the dictionary. Be careful to utter each syllable dis*
tinctly.
2. Bring to class a list of words you have heard mis-
pronounced in your classes. Give the correct pronuncia-
tion.
8. Prepare to read to the class some poem which is one
of your favorites. Be careful to enunciate distinctly and
to pronounce all the words correctly.
4. Make a list of the grammatical errors you have been
conscious of making. Add to this list those errors you
have made unconsciously to which your attention has
been called. Give the correct form in each case.
ORAL COMPOSITION 17
10. Clearness. We have already considered four
essentials of oral English. They are : first, good
English, that is, English free from slang phrases,
colloquial expressions, and obsolete terms ; second,
good grammar ; third, proper pronunciation ; fourth,
distinct enunciation. A fifth essential is clearness.
The purpose of language is to express your mean-
ing to somebody, — to make your thoughts clear to
others. Unless, then, what you say does express the
thought, language fails of its purpose. The use of
good English, the proper grammatical constructions,
correct pronunciation, and distinct enunciation will
accomplish much toward making the meaning clear;
but there are other things, too, essential to clearness.
The words chosen must be such as the hearer can
understand. In the case of a child, for instance, the
words must be within the range of his understand-
ing and should be quite different from those one
would choose in addressing a grown person.- More-
over, words must convey the meaning so exactly
that it cannot be misunderstood. They must be
properly arranged, as must the thoughts. Consider
how much the hearer needs to be told, where yoa
are to begin, where to leave off, always keeping in
mind the particular person to whom you speak, and
aiming not only to be understood but to interest
Exercise 3
1. Explain to the class why it is necessary to be careful
m spoken English. Aim to make your meaning dear;
enunciate distinctly.
18 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
2. Tell the class how to play a game which you have
enjoyed.
8. Direct a stranger from your railroad station to your
school building.
4. Tell the class which you like best of the subjects you
are studying in school this year, and explain why you en-
joy it most*
5. Explain to the class, as though they were strangers,
an improvement your city is making.
6. A little child has asked you which is better, summer
or winter. Tell him your preference and give your reasons.
7. Consult the dictionary to find out the exact meaning
of the italicized words in the following quotation. Explain
the meaning of the sentence.
Generosity often runs into profv^ion^ economy into avame,
eoumge into rashness, caution into timidity, and so on.
8. Bead two paragraphs from a standard author sug«
gested by your teacher. Make a list of the words in the
paragraphs which you would not be likely to use in con-
versation. Consult the dictionary for the meaning of each
word, so that you can explain it to the class and use the
word in a sentence to illustrate its meaning.
9. Use the following synonyms in sentences which
illustrate the different shades of meaning:
(a) Forgive, pardon, acqait.
(5) Pretty, beautifal, handsome, pictaresque.
(c) Fetch, bring, carry.
(d) Accident, chance, misfortune.
{e) Awkward, ridiculous, absurd, grotesque.
(/) Tired, fatigued, exhausted.
(g) Admit, allow, concede, grant, suffer, tolerate.
ORAL COMPOSITION 19
iz. Recitation English. We have considered one
Hnd of oral composition; that is^ conversational
English. A more formal kind is the oral language of
recitations in school. Next to conversation English
jou use this form most frequently, for it is a part
of every recitation — Latin, history, science, and
mathematics, as well as English. You cannot ex-
pect to become good speakers and writers, if you
make use of clear, correct English in the English
classroom only.
The main fault common to almost all recitations is
that the sentences are not complete. You are satis-
fied to utter a word or phrase or clause in answer to
the teacher's question, not taking the pains to express
your thought completely. The cases where a word
will suffice are rare and your own judgment will tell
you when such answers are appropriate. In general
make it a rule to express every answer in complete
sentences^ to let no statement pass that has not a
subject and a predicate. Complete statements are
more forceful and give added weight to the recita-
tion, and at the same time they help to form the
habit of correct expression.
A second fault in recitations is that the recitations
as well as the sentences are incomplete ; that is, they
are incomplete unless the teacher, by means of nu-
merous questions, helps to bring out the necessary
points and to present them in a logical order. The
difficulty in giving a topical recitation is that you do
not take time to recall the definite points included
20 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
and hence the answer is without plan. Tour state-
ments are not arranged logically and thus soon
become confused^ including facts that have no bear-
ing upon your topic, and leaving out essentials.
When called upon for a topical recitation, — and
most recitations are of this kind, — first, think what
your question calls for ; second, recall the definite
information you have upon the subject; third, ar-
range this information in logical order. It might
be well in this connection to remember that to begin
with " Why-a " does not help you in the least, but
rather detracts from what you have to say.
You will see that if you are to give a topical reci-
tation in the various classes, it is necessary that you
study the lessons with that in view. You must notice
what topics are discussed in your lessons and what is
said in connection with each topic.
Exercise 4
1. Beport the incomplete statements you have heard
during two recitation periods.
2. Name the topics which have been discussed in this
chapter on oral composition. Be prepared to give a top-
ical recitation on any one of them. Assume that what you
are going to say to the class on these subjects is new to
them.
8. Come to class prepared to recite on the following
topics connected with the life of Sir Walter Scott, Chris-
topher Columbus, or James Bussell Lowell :
(a) Birth : time, place ; ancestry.
(b) Eaxlj life, education, pursuits, habits, etc.
ORAL COMPOSITION 21
(p) Chief events of public and private life.
(d) Death : time, place, circumstances.
(e) Characteristics: personal appearance, mental and
moral qualities, likes and dislikes, etc.
(/) Service to country and to the world.
4. Read the following, make a list of the topics, and
prepare to discuss them :
The Pioneebs 07 1850
When the European and the savage are brought in contact,
.both are gainers, and both are losers. The former loses the
refinements of civilization, but he gains, in the rough schooling
of the wilderness, a rugged independence, a self-sustaining
energy, and powers of action and perception before unthought
of. The savage gains new means of comfort and support, doth,
iron, and gunpowder ; yet tiiese apparent benefits have often
proved but instruments of ruin. They soon become necessities
and the unhappy hunter, forgetting the weapons of his fathers,
must thenceforth depend on the white man for ease, happiness,
and life itself.
Those rude and hardy men, hunters and traders, scouts and
guides, who ranged tiie woods beyond the EngHsh borders, and
formed a connecting link between barbarism and civilization,
have been touched upon already. They were a distinct, peculiar
class, marked with striking contrasts of good and eviL Many,
though by no means all, were coarse, audacious, and unscrupu-
lous; yet, even in the worst, one might often have found a
vigorous growth of warlike virtues, an iron endurance, an unde-
spairing courage, a wondrous sagacity, and singular fertility of
resource. In them was renewed, with aU its ancient energy, that
wild and daring spirit, that force and hardihood of mind, which
marked bur barbarous ancestors of Germany and Norway.
These sons of the wilderness still survive. We may find them to
22 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
this day, not in the valley of the Ohio, nor on the shores of the
lakeS; but far westward on tiie desert range of the buffalo, and
among the solitudes of Oregon. Even now, while I write, some
lonely trapper is climbing the perilous defiles of the Rocky
Mountains, his strong frame cased in time-worn buck-skin, his
rifle gripped in his sinewy hand. Keenly he peers from side to
side, lest Blackf oot or Arapahoe should ambuscade his path. The
rough earth is his bed, a morsel of dried meat and a draught of
water are his food and drink, and death and danger his com-
panions. No anchorite could fare worse, no hero could dare
more ; yet his wild, hard life has resistless charms ; and while
he can wield a rifle, he will never leave it Go with him to the
rendezvous, and he is a stoio no more. Here, rioting among
his comrades, his native appetites break loose in mad excess,
in deep carouse, and desperate gaming. Then follow close the
quarrel, the challenge, tiie fight, — two rusty rifles and fifty
yards of prairie.
The nursling of civilization, placed in the midst of the forest,
and abandoned to his own resources, is helpless as an infant.
There is no clew to the labyrinth. Bewildered and amazed, he
circles round and round in hopeless wanderings. Despair and
famine make him their prey, and unless the birds of heaven
minister to his wants, he dies in misery. Not so the practised
woodsman. To him the forest is a home. It yields him food,
shelter, and raiment, and he threads its trackless depths with
undeviating foot. To lure the game, to circumvent the lurking
foe, to guide his course by the stars, the wind, the streams, or
the trees, — such are the arts which the white man has learned
from the red. Often indeed the pupil has outstripped his mas-
ter. He can hunt as well ; he can fight better ; and yet there
are niceties of the woodsman's craft in which the white man
must yield the palm to his savage rival. Seldom can he boast,
in equal measure, that subtlety of sense, more akin to the in-
ORAL COMPOSITION 28
■tinct of bmtes than to human reason, which reads the signs of
the forest as the schokr reads the printed page, to which the
whistle of a bird can speak clearly as the. tongue of man, and
the rustle of a leaf give knowledge of life or death.
Francis Fabkmak: T?ie Con^racy of Fontiac*
12. Abstracts and Reproductions. It frequently
liappens that your teachers refer you to articles and
ref erences, which you are called upon later to repro-
duce for the benefit of those who have not read
them. This may be accomplished in two ways : by
giving an abstract of the article or by giving a re-
production. The former method is probably the more
common. The best way to prepare to present an ab-
stract is to read the article thrpugh once carefully
and understandingly^ then read it through again not-
ing the topics and their order of treatment. Having
then the topics and order well in mind, you should
be able to give the class the facts concerning these
topics^ keeping to the original order, and reporting
the points in your own words.
If the assignment is of great importance, you may
be called upon to reproduce it. This means that you
must make every one of the ideas expressed therein
your own, and must then express them in your own
words. That is, the reproduction keeps closer to the
original, giving, the whole thought as far as possible.
This work is not confined to the schooboom alone.
You will frequently be called upon to tell others
what you have read, to give reports, and to repro-
duce statements made by others. The aim in all these
24 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
should be to report f aithfully, clearly^ and accurately.
First of all be sure you understand, then take pains
. to choose your language in such a manner that the
sense is unchanged. State the points in a logical
order.
Exercise 6
1. Give an oral abstract of some magazine article you
have read recently. Aim to make what you say clear aud
interesting to your classmates.
2. Report on the most interesting article you can find in
the daily paper.
8. Give a report on some recent reading you have done
as supplementary to your English work. Keep to the par-
ticular topic suggested by your teacher.
4. Seport on the results of the last French war in
America.
5. Give a report of what the school is doing in athletics,
in debating, in public speaking, or in any other of its
activities.
6. Reproduce in your own words the following:
I sprang to the stirrup, and Joris, and he ;
I galloped, Dirck galloped, we galloped all three ;
*^ Good speed ! " cried the watch, as the gate holts nndrew ;
*^ Speed ! " echoed the wall to us galloping through ;
Behind shut the postern, the lights sank to rest,
And into the midnight we galloped ahreast.
Not a word to each other ; we kept the great pace
Neck hy neck, stride hj stride, never changing our place ;
I turned in my saddle and made its girths tight,
Then shortened each stirrup, and set the pique right,
Behuckled the cheek-strap, chained slacker the bit.
Nor galloped less steadily Boland a whit.
ORAL COMPOSITION 26
T was moonset at starting ; bat while we drew near
Lokeren, the cocks crew and twilight dawned clear;
At Boom, a great yeUow star came out to see ;
At Diiffeld, 't was morning as plain as coald be ;
And from Mecheln church-steeple we heard the half chime.
So Joris broke silence with, '< Yet there is time ! "
At Aershot, up leaped of a sudden the sun,
And against him the cattle stood black every one.
To stare through the mist at us galloping past,
And I saw my stout galloper Roland at last,
With resolute shoulders, each butting away
The haze, as some blu£E river headland its spray.
And his low head and crest, just one sharp ear bent back
For my voice, and the other pricked out on his track ;
And one eye's black intelligence, — ever that glance
O'er its white edge at me, his own master, askance !
And the thick heavy spume-flakes which aye and anon
His fierce lips shook upwards in galloping on.
By Hasselt, Dirck groaned ; and cried Joris, " Stay spur 1
Tour Roos galloped bravely, the fault 's not in her.
We '11 remember at Aix " — for one heard the quick wheeze
Of her chest, saw the stretched neck and staggering knees,
And sunk tail, and horrible heave of the flank,
As down on her haunches she shuddered and sank.
So, we were left galloping, Joris and I,
Past Looz and past Tongres, no cloud in the sky ;
The broad sun above laughed a pitiless laugh,
'Neath our feet broke the brittle bright stubble like chaff ;
Till over by Dalhem a dome-spire sprang white,
And ^' Gallop/' jgasped Joris, ^' for Aix is in sight 1 "
26 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
*' How they '11 greet ns ! " — and all in a moment his roan «
Boiled neck and croup over, lay dead as a stone ;
And there was my Roland to bear the whole weight
Of the news which alone could save Aiz from her fate.
With his nostrils like pits full of blood to the brim,
And with circles of red for his eye-sockets' rim.
Then I cast loose my buffcoat, each holster let fall,
Shook off both my jack-boots, let go belt and all,
Stood up in the stirrup, leaned, patted his ear.
Called my Roland his pet-name, my horse without peer ;
Clapped my hands, laughed and sang, any noise, bad or good.
Till at length into Aix, Roland galloped and stood.
And all I remember is — friends flocking round
As I sat with his head 'twixt my knees on tiie ground;
And no voice but was praising this Roland of mine,
As I poured down his throat our last measure of wine.
Which (the burgesses voted by common consent)
Was no more than his due who brought good news from Ghent
Bbowiong : How they Brought the Good
News from Ghent to Aix.
7. Give oraUy the thought in the following quotations;
use the author's language if that comes to you before your
own words:
(a) Puck. How now, spirit ! Whither wander you?
Fairy. Over hill, over dale.
Thorough bush, thorough brier.
Over park, over pale.
Thorough flood, thorough fire,
I do wander everywhere.
Swifter than the moon's sphere;
ORAL COMPOSITION 27
And I seTTe the fairy qaeen.
To dew her orbs upon the green.
The cowslips tall her pensioners be:
In their gold coats, spots yon see ;
Those be rabies, faiiy favors.
In those freckles live their savors:
I must go seek some dewdrops here,
And haDg a pearl in every cowslip's ear.
Farewell, thou lob of spirits ; I '11 be gone :
Oar qaeen and all her elves come here anon.
Shakespeabe : A Midsummer Night's Dreanu
(b) Breathes there the man with seal so dead,
Who never to himself hath said,
'^ This is my own, my native land ? ''
Whose heart hath ne'er within him bom'dy
As home his footsteps he hath tam'd
From wandering on a foreign strand ?
If sach there breathe, go, mark him well;
For him no minstrel raptures swell ;
High thoagh his titles, proad his name,
Boandless his wealth as wish can claim ;
Despite those titles, power, and pelf,
The, wretch, concentred all in self,
Living, shall forfeit fair renown,
And, doably dying, shall go down
To the vile dast from which he sprang.
Unwept, unhonored, and ansung.
Scott : The Lay of the Last MinstreL
(e) The first snow came. How beautiful it was, falling
80 silently all day long, all night long, on the mountains,
on the meadows, on the roofs of the living, on the graves
of the dead I All white save the river, that marked its
28 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
course by a winding black line across the landscape; and
the leafless trees, that against the leaden sky now revealed
more fully the wonderful beauty and intricacy of their
branches!
What silence, too, came with the snow; and what seclu-
sion I Every sound was muffled, every noise changed to
something soft and musical. No more trampling hoof s, —
no more rattling wheels I Only the chiming sleigh-bells,
beating as swift and merrily as the hearts of children.
Longfellow: Ka'oanagh.
13. Memory Work. Beproductions may be of
another kind ; instead of reproducing the thought
of an author in your own words, you may g^ve his
exact words, from memory. Both the memorizing of
prose and poetry, and the retelling of passages from
literature in your own language are valuable, for
thus you increase your stock of words and idioms.
For instance, in the above exercises it was necessary
to make a careful selection of words to express the
author's meaning. Sometimes you were compelled to
use the original expression to reproduce the thought
adequately, and so increased your own vocabulary.
Memorized passages serve the same purpose and
have a value that can scarcely be over-estimated.
They not only improve your own use of English,
but also stimulate thought and become a source of
much pleasure and satisfaction in after years.
Exercise 6
1. Bead the following two or three times ; reproduce
it in your own words ; then memorize it and repeat it
ORAL COMPOSITION 29
to the class; pay particular attention to expression and
pronunciation :
And let the sacred obligations which have devolved on this
generation, and on us, sink deep into oar hearts. Those who
established oar liberty and oar government are daily dropping
from among us. The great trust now descends to new hands.
Let as apply ourselves to that which is presented to us, as our
appropriate object. We can win no laurels in a war for inde-
pendence. Earlier and worthier hands have gathered them alL
Nor are there places for us by the side of Solon, and Alfred,
and other founders of States. Oar fathers have filled them. But
there remains to us a great duty of defence and preservation ;
and there is open to us also, a noble pursuit, to which the spirit
of the times strongly invites us. In a day of peace, let us ad-
vance the arts of peace and the works of peace. Let us develop
the resources of our land, call forth its powers, build up its in-
stitutions, promote all its great interests, and see whether we
also, in our day and generation, may not perform something
worthy to be remembered. Let us cultivate a true spirit of
nnion and harmony. Let our object be, Our eountry^ our whole
country J and nothing hvt our country. And, by the blessing of
God, may that country itself become a vast and splendid menu*
ment, not of oppression and terror, but of "Wisdom, of Peace,
and of Liberty, upon which the world may gaze with admiration
forever I
Webster: Bunker HiU Oration.
2. Memorize one or more of the following selections
and repeat in class; pay particular attention to your
enunciation :
(a) Build thee more stately mansions, O my sooly
As the swift seasons roll I
Leave thy low-vaulted past!
80 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
Let each new temple, nobler than the last,
Shut thee from heaven with a dome more vast.
Till thou at length art free,
Iieaving thine outgrown shell by life's unresting seal
Holmes : The Chambered NautUue.
(b) The year 's at the spring.
And day 's at the morn ;
Morning 's at seven ;
The hillside 's dew pearled ;
The lark 's on the wing ;
The snail 's on the thorn ;
God 's in His heaven —
All 's right with the world.
Browning : Fippa Fosses.
(0) If thou art worn and hard beset
With sorrows, that thou wooldst forget,
If thou wouldst read a lesson, that will keep
Thy heart from fainting and thy soul from sleep,
Gro to the woods and hills ! No tears
Dim the sweet look that Nature wears.
Longfellow : Sunrise on the HiUs.
(d) My good blade carves the casques of men,
My tough lance thrusteth sure,
My strength is as the strength of ten.
Because my heart is pure.
The shattering trumpet shrilleth high,
The hard brands shiver on the steel.
The splintered speaivehafts crack and fly.
The horse and rider reel :
They reel, they roll in clanging lists,
ORAL COMPOSITION 31
And when the tide of combat stands.
Perfume and flowers fall in showers,
That lightly rain from ladies' hands.
Tbnktbon : Sir ChlahatL
(e) There is a pleasure in the pathless woods.
There is a rapture on the lonely shore,
There is society, where none intrudes,
By the deep sea, and music in its roar.
I love not man the less, but nature more,
From these our interviews, in which I steal
From all I may be, or have been before,
To mingle with the universe, and feel
What I can ne'er express, yet cannot all conceaL
Bybon.
8. Commit to memory selections from the literature
assigned in class.
14. Personal Incident. Every day, no doubt,
you have occasion to relate to your companions
some exciting or amusing incident, something yoa
have experienced or observed. The aim in relating
such experiences is to entertain your hearers; to do
it well is an art worth cultivating.
In telling a personal anecdote you should keep in
mind certain things. In the first place, the story
should begin with those facts of time, place, and
persons present, which your hearers must know if
they are to understand and appreciate what you are
telling them. In the second place, the incident must
have a point which you should reach before your
hearers have time to become impatient. Therefore
32 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
the story must proceed in a straight-forward manner,
with the introduction of only those details which
have a direct bearing upon the point. Finally^ when
the hearer's curiosity has been satisfied, that is, when
you have reached the point of your story, it should
end.
15. Description in Oral Composition. Fre-
quently, when you tell a personal incident, repeat a
conversation, give a recitation, or reproduce the
thoughts of others, it is necessary to describe per-
sons, places, feelings, and situations. These descrip-
tions add interest and make what is told more vivid
to the hearers. They must be brief, however, for they
are incidental. Because they are brief, the details
selected should be the prominent and characteristic
ones. If you are describing a person, select the un-
usual characteristics, those in which he is unlike
other people. Give first the general appearance, then
add details that are significant. If you are describ-
ing an object, give first the general outline, size,
color, and shape, then add particulars.
Exercise 7
1. Recall an interesting incident you have heard re-
cently. Tell it to the class beginning with the time, place,
and character. Introduce any bits of description which
will add to the point of the incident.
2. Prepare to tell the class an interesting story you
have read in a magazine or newspaper. Be sure your
story has a point and that you tell only the necessary de-
tails. Avoid using *' and '' and ** and then '' too frequently.
THE LAUGHING CAVALTEK
Franz UuU
ORAL COMPOSITION 83
8. Bead about Ichabod Crane's ride in Irying's Sketch
Book; then relate the incident to your classmates, giving
a description of Ichabod.
4. Retell an incident taken from literature assigned by
your teacher.
5. Tell some anecdote of your father's early life. (Sub-
stitute some other member of your family for your father,
if you wish.)
6. Tell about some anecdote in your own life in such a
way that it is interesting and entertaining. The follow*
ing topics may suggest one or more stories:
(a) A practical joke. (e) The morning I was tardy.
(b) Missing the train. (f) An unexpected discovery*
(c) An unexpected caller. (g) A swimming accident.
(d) A fortunate hit. (h) A forgotten errand.
7. Relate a personal incident from the life of some au-
thor or statesman whose biography you have read.
z6. The Oral Paragraph. In the work in oral
composition you have seen the necessity for a plan of
procedure, for some method of presenting what you
have to say. You have noted the following points:
1. Your sentences must be complete.
2. You must have a definite topic in mind when
you are talking.
3. What you say must be closely related to that
topic.
4. When you have more than one topic, they
must be presented according to some definite plan
and in a certain order.
In this plan of composition it is the topic which-
is emphasized. Upon this your thought is centered
84 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
in talking ; and hence it is about this that your sen-
tences tell something. Such a group of sentences all
closely related and treating of one topic is called a
paragraph. It may be oral or written. There should
be one sentence placed at the beginning of the par-
agraph, which tells the hearer what you are going
to talk about ; that is, which states the topic. This
is called the topic sentence.
The topic sentence is of great importance in oral
discourse, perhaps of even greater importance than
in written discourse; for the hearer cannot go back
over the paragraph as the reader can, if he has
missed the point/ Hence the topic should be clearly
and forcefully stated at the beginning of the para-
graph, and sometimes again at the close, especially
if there are several paragraphs.
Exercise 8
In the following exercises pay particular attention to
the use of good English ; to the paragraph form, stating
in each case a topic sentence first ; and to the order of*
points. Think first what you are going to say and form
some plan as to the order in which you will say it.
1. Tell the class about a book they ought to read or a
trip they ought to make, stating your reasons.
2. Using these as topic sentences, express orally your
thoughts on the subjects :
(a) Every boy or girl who has the opportunity should take
a high school coarse.
(b) Swimming (or any form of exercise yon like) is the
best exercise of all to me^ and the most fun.
ORAL COMPOSITION 85
{e) Memorizing good prose or poetry is of great benefit to
a person.
(d) A most interestiDg experience occorred on my way to
Bchool the other morning.
{e) Let me tell you how
a. I spent my vacation.
b* I got caught in my own joke.
e. We got frightened by a tramp.
d. We pat oat the fire.
e. We were panished.
(/) When Colambas came to America, he f oond a people
very different from the Spaniards and other Earopeans.
(ff) Benjamin Franklin was one of the most remarkable
men that the coantry has produced.
(h) As the United States has many varieties of soils and
climate, its products also are varied.
(i) John Smith was the most pictoresque figure in the early
history of America.
8. Tour class has decided to ask your teacher to post-
pone an examination. You are to speak in behalf of the
class. Tell them what you are going to say.
4. Tell the class about some character in the book yoa
are reading, or some odd person you have met.
5. Explain to the class what you would like to do when
you leave school, and why your chosen occupation is
pleasing to you.
6. Tell the story suggested by one of the following
phrases, bringing the phrase into your story, at the appro-
priate point :
(a) One day as I was strolliug in the park, —
{b) As I reached the comer, the fire company came dcwn
the street; and —
86 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
(c) The captain said, '* Cany the message to the front ;
and — "
(d) And suddenly there appeared —
(e) The score was even, two men were out, when Dick
came to the hat in the ninth inning ; — -
(f) 1 had watched the trail all morning, with gon in hand ;
but —
7. What incident from his life do you imagine the
laughing cavalier has just been telling? (See picture
facing page 32.)
8. Turn to the picture facing page 142. What traits of
character do you find pictured in the face ?
CHAPTER n
REVIEW OF CAPITALIZAHOir AND PUNC-
TUATION
17. The purpose of marks of punctuation Is to
assist the reader's understanding by indicating such
grouping of words as will convey the author's mean-
ing. These marks stand in place of the pauses and
inflections of voice in spoken language which play
so large a part in conveying our meaning. They
indicate to the eye the writer's pauses and breaks in
thought, and the grammatical relation between words
and groups of words. The right and wrong of punc-
tuation cannot be set down in arbitrary rules, since
the use of the different marks depends on the judg-
ment of the individual and may change from time to
time. However, a few rules, which are recognized
and followed by the best English writers, should be
learned and put into practice. Further than this, you
should observe carefully the punctuation of present-
day writers and publishers of good standing.
Capitalization
i8. Uses of Capital Letters
1. The first word of a sentence, of every line of poetry,
and of a direct question or a direct quotation (except
S8 raOH SCHOOL ENGLISH
a mere phrase or a part of a sentence) should begin with
a capital letter.
He said, " We have come for the purpose of ezpkining the
matter."
Ask yourself this question : Are you making the most of your
opportunities?
2. Proper names should begin with capitals. This in-
cludes names of persons, places, rivers, mountains, races,
sects, holidays, events of historical importance, epochs o£
time, etc.
Battle of the Wilderness, The Middle Ages, Bepablicans^
Presbyterians.
Note. The words street, river, mountain, and the like, begin
with capitals only when used as part of a proper name.
Tremont Street, Nile River, Pyrenees Mountains.
3. The names of the days of the week and monllis
of the year — but not the seasons — should begin with
capitals.
Monday, June, fall, spring.
4. The names applied to Deity should begin with capi-
tals. Personal pronouns referring to Deity are also capital-
ized when their antecedents are not expressed or when
there might be confusion of antecedents.
He that dwelleth in the secret place of the Most High shall
abide under the shadow of the Almighty.
Come unto Me all ye that labor and are heavy laden and I
will give yon rest.
5. Adjectives derived from proper nouns should begin
with capitals.
American, Shakespearian.
IKEVTEW OF CAPITALIZATION 99
6. The pronoun / and the inteijeotion O are always
capitalized.
Note. The interjection Oh is capitalized only when it
stands at the beginning of a sentence.
7. The first word and every important word in tho
titles of books, essays, etc., should begin with capitals.
A Tale of Two Cities,
The Flight of a Tartar Tribe.
8. Titles of rank and honor used in connection with
proper names should begin with capitals. When the title
is used without the proper name, it is capitalized only in
the case of officials of high rank.
The President summoned the Secretary of State to an im-
portant conference.
BeaivAdmiral Dewey.
The alderman from the fifth ward.
9. The words norths souths eastj west, and their com-
pounds (northeast^ etc.) and adjectives (northern^ etc.)
should begin with capitals when they refer to sections of
the country, and not when they simply denote direction.
The commercial interests of the South, as well as those of
the North, felt the financial depression.
Toward evening a refreshing breeze came up from the west.
10. Words denoting kinship as father, mother, etc.,
are capitalized when used without the possessive pronoun
and when used with a proper name.
Did you tell Father that Uncle John had decided to remain
in Calif omia ?
He begged hb sister to intercede.
40 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
11. Names of personified objects should begin with
capitals.
And, O, ye Fountains, Meadows, Hills, and GroveSi
Forbid not any severing of our loves 3
Exercise 9
a. Bring to class two illustrations of each of the aboye
rules for the uses of capitals. These illustrations may be
original or taken from your reading.
h. Give the reasons for the use of capitals in the fol-
lowing sentences :
1. We heard the President's address at the Champlain Ter-
centenary Celebration.
2. Father and Sister expect to join Uncle Fred in the English
lake district next sammer, probably in July.
3. Days Off by Henry Van Dyke would be a good book to
take to read on your journey.
4. And Sir Launf al said, ^^ I behold in thee
An image of Him who died on the tree ; "
6. He was heard to ask, "Will you kindly direct me to
Washington Street?"
6. General Clarence R. Edwards, Chief of the Bureau of
Lisular AfEairs, in his annual report to the Secretary of War,
urges that American citizenship be extended to the Porto
Bicans.
7. He was the one man in the country who could transfer
the free life of the West to the pages of a magazine without
loss of vitality, as << The Buffalo Hunt," '' The Broncho Bus-
ter," and « The Apache Trail " testify.
8. The Republicans in the House supported the bill with
REVIEW OF CAPITALIZATION 41
9* Poor man ! I know he would not be a wolf.
Bat that he sees the Romans are bat sheep.
10. Protestants and Catholics and even those who worship
stones may know Him and be known of Him; for He has
made alL
11. Bat, Grief,
Where hast thoa led me ?
12. The meeting of the Alamni Association will be held the
last Taesday in Febraary.
c. Supply the necessary capitals in the following sen-
tences:
1. Early in 1897 he entered the senate and remained there
nntil the president appointed him secretary of state.
2. In Julius ecBsar bratas warns, "remember march, the
ides of march remember.''
3. For a parallel to the elizabethan age we mast go back to
the age of pericles in athens.
4. I will say of the lord, he is my ref age and my fortress ;
my god ; in him will I trast.
6. let not ambition mock their asefal toil
their homely joys and destiny obscare ;
nor grandear hear with a disdainful smile,
the short and simple annals of the poor.
6. Father's letter states that mother and my aunt elizabeth
will return from the west to-morrow on the lake shore limited.
7. " and how came miss matilda not to marry him ? " asked I.
" oh, i don't know, she was willing enough, i think ; bat
yon know cousin thomas would not have been enough of a
gentleman for the rector and miss jenkyns."
^ well I but they were not to marry him," said i impatiently.
^ no ; but they did not like miss matty to marry below her rank.
42 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
yon know she was the rector's daughter, and somehow they are
related to sir peter arley ; miss Jenkins thought a deal of that"
'' poor miss matty ! *' said L
Mbs. Gaskell: Cranford.
d. Bring to class a newspaper or a magazine in which
you haye found examples of capitalization which seem to
you to vary from the rules you have learned.
e. Compare two daily papers or two magazines noting
any differences in the use of capitals.
Punctuation
19. The Comma. In general, the comma is used
to indicate in the sentence a slight pause or break
in thought ; an omission of words essential to the
grammatical structure; or the separation of paren-
thetical words not essential to the grammatical
structure. In its office of separation the comma de-
notes a lesser degree of separation than the semi-
colon, which in turn marks a lesser degree of sepa-
ration than the coloni.
20. The Uses of the Comma are :
1. To separate words or phrases or clauses in the same
construction forming a series, unless all connectives are
expressed.
The multitude gave vent to their rage, g^ef, astonishment,
and despair.
To the memory of the Man, first in war, first in peace, and
first in the hearts of his countrymen.
Note 1. It is customary when but one connective is used
in a series, that is, between the last two members, to precede it
with a comma.
REVIEW OP PUNC5TUATI0N 43
Note 2. When the phrases or clauses in the series are long
and complicated or when they are not very closely related in
thought, the semicolon should be used to mark the separation,
instead of the comma. See, for example, the punctuation in the
£rst sentence of § 19.
2. To set off from the rest of the sentence, words or
expressions used in apposition.
There are only two places in Europe, Constantinople and
Gibraltar, that combine an equally perfect landscape with an
equally imperial position.
Note. If the noun and the appositive are so closely con-
nected as to form a single idea, the comma is omitted.
My friend Richmond returns this week.
3. To separate from the rest of the sentence, a brief,
direct quotation or question.
Waller then shouted, '^ He 's coming our way, after all ! "
Note. If the quotation is long or formal, a colon or a colon
and a dash are used.
4. To mark the omission of words grammatically essen-
tial.
If convenient, return the book tomorrow ; if not, Wednesday.
5. To separate from the rest of the sentence, words
used in direct address.
Haste thee, Nymph, and bring with thee
Jest and youthful Jollity.
6. To separate from the rest of the sentence, words,
phrases, and clauses not essential to the grammatical
structure of the sentence.
That, I think, is a valuable suggestion.
U HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
In general, however, this is their manner of conducting the
meeting.
Note. If the parenthetical expression is long and loosely
connected with the rest of the sentence, dashes or parentheses
are nsed instead of commas. Dashes indicate a closer relation
than parentheses, and the present tendency is to use the dash in
place of the parenthesis.
7. To separate from the rest of the sentence, phrases and
clauses which are out of their natural order.
Before anyhody could answer, she was gone.
Wrapt in his odorous and many-colored rohe, he took his staff in
hand and moved pretty vigorously to the head of the staircase.
8. To separate from the rest of the sentence, a nomina-
tive absolute construction and expressions used indepen-
dently.
The wagon having broken down, they made their way on foot.
To tell the truth, I was frightened.
9. To separate a long, somewhat involved subject from
the predicate.
What seems a kind of temporal death to people choked between
walls and curtains, is only a light and living slumber to the man
who sleeps afield.
10. To separate from the rest of the sentence, clauses,
except such as are restrictive.
The old house, in which we had lived for many years, was torn
down.
On the side of the Green that led towards the church, the
broken line of thatched cottages was continued nearly to the
churchyard gate.
(Notice that the clause "that led towards the church '' is le-
striotive.)
REVIEW OP PUNCTUATION 46
If he had made any sign of disapproval, they would have
tamed back immediately.
Note. The comma may be omitted if there is a close con-
nection between the claases. Bat in the case of the parely de-
scriptive relative claase, the comma is necessary, as after moan
in this example :
And when again the iron door closed, then reappeared the
light of the half-fall moon, which vainly strove to trace out the
indistinct shapes of the neighboring mountains.
11. To separate members of a compound sentence.
At this comer Suydam turned out of the side street, and went
down a street no wider perhaps, but extending north and south
in a devious and hesitating way not common in the streets of
New York.
Exercise 10
a. Give the reasons for the use of the commas in the
following sentences :
1. Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my
heart to this vote.
2. Dar'st thou, Cassius, now
Leap in with me into this angry flood.
And swim to yonder point ?
3. '^ I am bound by my vow to do so," replied the knight ;
'^ but I would willingly know who you are, who request my as*
flistance in their behalf."
4. If you have tears, prepare to shed them now.
5. Gro, draw aside the curtains, and discover
The several caskets to this noble prince.
6. I was much agitated (says Boswell) and recollecting his
prejudice against the Scotch, of which I had heard much, I said
to Davies, ** Don't tell him where I come from." '< Prom Scot-
46 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
land," cried Davies roguishly. " Mr. Johnson/' said I, " I do
indeed come from Scotland, bat I cannot help it.*' . • . '' That,
sir " (cried Johnson), << I find is what a very great many of year
countrymen cannot help." This stroke stunned me a good deal ;
and when we had sat down I felt myself not a little embarrassed
and apprehensive of what might come next.
7. Most of his conversation, it must be confessed, is rather
tiresome.
8. Dred Scott, a slave, was taken by his master to Illinois, a
free state, and from there to Minnesota.
9. On our way home, we sought out the wood road, which
proved cool and inviting.
10. Look upward, not downward ; forward, not back.
b. Supply the necessary commas in the following :
1. In the early years of this century such a linen-weaver
named Silas Marner worked at his vocation in a stone cottage
that stood among the nutty hedgerows near the village of Bav-
eloe and not far from the edge of the deserted stone-pit.
2. In war he was warlike ; in peace peaceable.
3. It is a poor compliment to our skill that play what games
-we will we never win over them.
4. That boy it seems to me may some day make his mark in
the world.
5. When our work is completed what say yon James to a
trip up the river ?
6. Abraham Lincoln among others believed the decision
wrong and said so.
7. Rip bethought himself a moment and inquired " Where 'a
Nicholas Vedder?"
8. The thing for us to decide first of all is Who shall be
spokesman.
9. A throng of bearded men in sad-colored garments and
REVIEW OF PUNCTUATION 47
gray steeple-crowned hats intermixed with women some wearing
hoods and others bareheaded was assembled in front of a wooden
edifice the door of which was heavily timbered with oak and
studded with iron spikes.
10. They now stood it seemed on the highest peak the view
from which was well worth the climb that had all but exhausted
the younger boys.
11. Get me a taper in my study Lucius »
When it is lighted come and call me here.
12. The bam which stands in the grove on the left bank of
the river was struck by lightning and burned to the ground.
13. So grand was the old man's aspect and so did he contrast
in appearance the narrow garb and shaven chins of those around
that the Duke was roused from his reverie at the sight and
marvelling why one evidently the chief of high rank had neither
graced the banquet in his honor nor been presented to his notice
he turned to the Earl of Hereford who approached him with a
gay salutation and inquired the name and title of the bearded
man in the loose flowing robe.
14. Gato said " I had rather men should ask why my statue
is not set up than why it is."
21. Uses of the Semicolon
1. The semicolon is used to separate the members of a
compound sentence, when they are complex in structure or
not closely related; when commas are used within the
members ; or when the connective is omitted.
As Ciesar loved me, I weep for him ; as he was fortunate,
I rejoice at it ; as he was valiant, I honor him ; but, as he was
ambitious, I slew him.
What he saw did not strike him as pitiful ; it did not weigh
him down with despondency.
48 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
Note. When the members of the componnd sentence are
short and very closely connected, the comma is used, even when
connectives are omitted.
I spoke, I thought, I regretted.
2. The semicolon is used before as, namdy^ that is^for
€xa,7nple»
He asked only one privilege ; that is, to be allowed to visit his
old haunt, the trout stream.
3. Clauses in a series all having the same dependent
construction are separated from each other by semicolons.
We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are
created equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with
certain inalienable rights ; that among these are life, liberty,
and the pursuit of happiness.
22. Uses of the Colon
1. The colon is a mark of anticipation and is used to
introduce a long formal quotation; an enumeration; a se-
ries of expressions explanatory of a general statement ; or
a statement formally introduced by such words as thus^ as
follows^ theae^ this.
Adjective relative clauses are of two kinds: restrictive and
non-restrictive relative clauses.
The epitaph on Shakespeare's tomb is as follows :
Grood friend, for Jesus' sake forbear
To dig the dust enclosed here ;
Blest be the man that spares these stones.
And cursed he that moves my bones.
The following books are to be read : Quentin Durward^ A Tale
of Two Cities^ Irving's Life of Ooldamith, and The Odyssey.
2. If the members of a compound sentence contain
REVIEW OF PUNCTUATION ^
semicolons, they may be separated from each other by
colons.
It is too cold ; the walks are too treacherous : we will wait
until conditions are more favorable.
3. A statement added to a sentence already complete,
with no introductory connecting word, is preceded by a
colon.
The Beautiful is higher than the Grood : the Beautiful includes
Good.
Exercise 11
Explain the use of the semicolons and colons in the
following :
1. I challenge you all to answer this : I tell you, yon cannot.
2. We are simply lazy ; too lazy to make ourselves comfortable.
3. He who entered on a winter night beheld a strange spec-
tacle : the vista of fires lighting the smoky concave ; the bronze
groups encircling each, — cooking, eating, gambling, or amus-
ing themselves with idle badinage ; shrivelled squaws, hideous
with three-score years of hardship ; grisly old warriors, scarred
with Iroquois war clubs.
4. We must not, before beginning a sentence, decide what the
end shall be ; for if we do, nobody will care to hear the end.
5. The actual cutting of hay may be done in two ways :
either by hand or by machine.
6. Joy comes, grief goes, we know not how ;
Everything is happy now,
Everything is upward striving ;
'Tis as easy now for the heart to be true
As for grass to be green or skies to be blue, -«
'T is the natural way of living :
Who knows whither the clouds have fled?
50 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
7. The old Squire was an implacable man : he made reeoln-
tions in violent anger, and he was not to be moved from them
after his anger had sabsided.
23* Uses of the Period
1. Every declarative and imperative sentence is fol«
lowed by a period, which indicates a complete grammati-'
cal unit.
2. A period follows every abbreviation; as, Mr., Dept.,
N.Y.
24* Uses of the Interrogation Point
1. The interrogation point is placed at the end of every
sentence that asks a direct question. Sometimes, instead
of being placed at the end of the sentence, it is placed
after the interrogative part of the sentence.
^' What do they now, maiden ? " said Ivanhoe.
Who is there ? — What art thoa ? — that darest to echo my
words in a tone like that of a night raven.
2. To indicate doubt, the interrogation point is placed
in parentheses (?).
Geoffrey Chancer, the first of the greater poets of England,
was bom m 1340 (?) and died in 1400.
25. Uses of the Exclamation Point
1. The exclamation point is used after every exclama-
tory sentence and after interjections and other expres-
sions of emotion.
Bat, alas ! yon are not all here !
Note. In the above sentence the writer lays stress on the
introdactory exclamatory word by the first exclamation pointy
and on the sentence as a rhole by the second.
BEVIEW OF PUNCTUATIOS 51
2. The exclamation point is frequently used to express
contempt or sarcasm.
And he is a poeti
26. Uses of the Dash
1. The dash is used to mark a sudden change in thought
or in construction.
These were thy charms — hat all thy charms are fled.
I heard that — I think I '11 not tell yoa what I heard.
2. Dashes may be used, in place of commas, to set off
parenthetical expressions which have a closer connection
with the rest of the sentence than parentheses would
indicate.
Thenceforward you have the whole evening — the whole night,
if needful — to ransack the treasures of the house and to make
good your safety.
8. The dash may be used to set off an appositive or
supplementary word or phrase added for purpose of em-
phasis or of explanation.
His features were plain, but not repulsive — certainly not so
when lighted up by conversatioUi
My punishment was the craelest mortification — neglect.
4. The dash may be used with the colon before a direct
quotation, an enumeration, or a statement formally intro-
duced.
The lines you mean are as follows : —
Daffodils,
That come before the swallow dares and take
The winds of March with beauty.
There are three degrees of comparison : — positive, compara-
tive, and superlative.
52 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
5. The dash is used to indicate the omission of letters
or figures.
The Revolutionary War lasted from 1775-'83.
6. Dashes are frequently used between words and
groups of words to indicate hesitancy or strong emotion.
Yes — no — that is, if you are perfectly — perfectly — will —
willing.
Note. Do not make the dash do duty for other marks of
punctuation. The dash has its distinctive uses and should not he
misused.
27. Uses of Quotation Marks
1. All direct quotations should be enclosed in quotation
marks.
''Will you," said the superintendent, ''report this matter in
full?"
NoTB. When the direct quotation is interrupted hy a pa-
renthetical expression, both parts of the quotation must be en-
closed in quotation marks. Care should be taken to show where
quoted passages begin and end.
2. When a quotation consists of more than one para-
graph, quotation marks should be placed at the beginning
of each paragraph, but at the end of the last one only.
8. A quotation within a quotation is indicated by single
quotation marks.
" Tes, of course," she admitted, " hut Father said distinctly^
* I prefer to go myself.' "
Note 1. For a third quotation, that is, a quotation within
the one indicated hy the single marks, urc douhle quotation
marks.
Note 2. An exclamation or interrogation point is placed be-
BEVIEW OF PUNCTUATION 63
fore the quotation marks if it belongs to the matter qaoted;
after the quotation marks^ if it belongs to the whole sentence*
4. Titles of books, periodicals, musical compositions,
paintings, and sculptures are enclosed in quotation marks.
Shakespeare's ''As Toa Like It" is the play the students
selected.
Note. In printed matter italics are often used instead of
quotation marks.
28. Uses of Parentheses and Brackets
1. Parentheses are used to enclose explanatory matter
or expressions loosely connected in thought and structure
with the rest of the sentence.
After tea, when the door was shut and all was made snug
{the nights being cold and misty now), it seemed to me the
most delicious retreat that the imagination of man could con-
ceive.
During those years (1777-1781) he wrote what is probably
Lis most lasting contribution to literature.
2. Brackets are used to enclose expressions inserted in
a direct quotation, but not a part of the original sentence.
The expressions inserted are in the nature of explanations
or corrections.
That same year [1898] he made a second trip to the far
'East to study the problem.
29. Uses of the Apostrophe
The apostrophe has three uses :
1. To form the possessive case of nouns.
2. To indicate the omission of letters or figures.
The calm light of the moon shone o'er the peaceful scene.
The Class of '88 was cheered all along the line of march.
64 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
8. To form the plural of letters of the alphabet, num*
bers, symbols, and the like.
It is impossible to distinguish your u*s from your n's.
30. Uses of the Hyphen
The hyphen is used between the parts of a compound
word and of a word divided at the end of a line. For
example: dog-kennel; and see the first line on this
page.
Exercise 12
a. Using the abbreviated form of the following words
and expressions, construct complete sentences illustrating
each:
Collect oa delivery, Bachelor of Arts, Doctor of Medicine,
Manuscripts, Before Christ, Florida, for example. New Jersey,
Member of Cong^ress, and so forth, before noon.
h. Give the reasons for the use of periods, dashes, ex-
clamation points, quotation marks, hyphens, and interro-
gation points in the following:
1. The extract from << Bip Van Winkle " on page 12.
2. little Tapin rubbed his eyes.
'' I am ill,'' he murmured. " 1 have been faint I seemed
to see — "
'< Thou hast seen," said the voice of his companion, very
softly, very solemnly, — <<Thon hast seen simply what it is to
be a soldier of France I "
Cabbyl : Little Tapin.
c. Supply the necessary punctuation in the following,
Grive your reason for each mark inserted.
1. How said Athelstane is this the noble King Bichard
2. If you re pointing at me Mr Macey said the deputy
REVIEW OF PUNCTUATION 85
derk with an air of anxious propriety Im nowise a man to
speak out of my place As the psahn says
I know what s right nor only so
But also practice what I know.
Eliot: Silas Mamer.
3. We shall read the following Qaentin Darward Treasure
Island and The Vision of Sir LaunfaL
4. How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank.
5. That [the ability to write] was a proficiency that tempted
me and I practiced to acquire it as men learn to whittle in a
wager with myself.
6. They go before us indeed in the field as deer before dogs
said Malyoisin.
7. Did I hear correctly asked the essays did you assert I
csku but think why my dear sir that is the one thing you cannot
do.
8. Yet I will name a Norman the first in arms and in place
the best and noblest of his race.
9. The letter was sent when
10. The novel in question was the Vicar of Wakefield the
bookseller to whom Johnson sold it was Francis Newberry
nephew to John.
11. There was something wrong more than common that was
quite clear for Mr Godfrey didnt look half so fresh colored and
open as he used to do
12. There are three creatures the squirrel the field-mouse
and the bird called the nuthatch which live much on hazel nuts
and yet they open them each in a different way the first after
rasping off the small end splits the shell in two with his long
fore teeth as a man does with his knife the second nibbles a hole
with his teeth as regular as if drilled with a wimble and yet so
small that one would wonder bow the kernel could be extracted
66 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
Chrongh it while the last picks an irregular ragged hole with his
hill hut this artist has no paws to hold the nut with while he
pierces it like an adroit workman he fixes it as it were in a yice
in some cleft of a tree or in some crevice when standing over it
he perforates the stnhhorn shell.
GiLBEBT Whitb I Natural History of Selhome.
13. The fading grey light fell dimly on the walls decorated
with guns whips and foxes brushes on coats and hats flung on the
chairs on tankards sending forth a scent of fiat ale and on a half
choked fire with pipes propped up in the chimney comers signs
of a domestic life destitute of any hallowing charm.
14. I don t pretend to be a good fellow he said to himself but
I m not a scoundrel at least I m not that.
15. He who wrote the following lines was a consistent preacher
of courage and cheer
The world is so full of a number of thiugSv
* I am sure we should all be as happy as kings.
d. In exercise 5 under c above, explain the use of the
brackets.
6. Write three sentences illustrating the use of paren-
f. Bring to class an illustration of each use of the
dash, which you have found in your reading. Also, note
any uses of the dash not justified by the rules you have
learned. Bring examples of such to class for discussion.
CHAPTER m
LETTER WRITING
31. Written Composition. We have noted, in
connection with oral composition, the need for care
in the use of spoken English. You have found that it
is necessary to speak in such a way that your hearers
may understand easily and at the same time be inter-
ested in what is said. In written composition the aim
is the same ; hence right habits formed in spoken
language will aid materially in written composition.
As in oral composition, think first what your
reader needs to be told so that he may understand;
second, in what order the points should be presented
that he may understand readily; third, what he
would probably ask about, were he present; and
last, what points have special interest for him.
32. Letter Writing. The form of written compo-
sition which you will probably use most frequently
is letter writing. That it is necessary to take pains
in the construction of letters is obvious, for it is by
means of these that you keep in touch with friends
and carry on business. A carelessly written letter
not only confuses the recipient, but conveys a very
poor impression of the writer.
33. Kinds of Letters. Letters are of two kinds :
friendly or informal letters^ and husiness or formal
68 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
letters. The distinction between these is due largely
to the subject matter, but partly also to the tone and
spirit of the letter. You might write to friends on
business, pure and simple, yet the tone of the letter
would not be formal. In general, the friendly letter
is informal, expresses much of the writer's indi-
viduality, and seeks to enter into the mood of the
recipient; the business letter is formal, and states
only such matter as has direct bearing upon the pur-
pose of the letter.
34. Parts of Letters. Letter writing follows the
principles of composition in general, but it has in
addition special rules and conventions laid down by
custom. In very informal letters ceremony is dis-
pensed with, but even in these it is best to follow
the established form.
A letter consists of the following parts: (1) the
heading, (2) the salutation, (3) the body, (4) the
complimentary closing, (5) the signature.
35* The Heading consists of the writer's address and
the date, arranged and abbreviated as follows :
(1) (2)
328 Washington Ave., Melrofle, Bensseker Co., N. T.,
Chicago, SL, April 4, 1911.
Oct. 25th, 1911.
See p. 71 for the position of this heading. Note the
indentation and the punctuation. In fan.iliar letters, the
heading is often omitted, in which case the address with
date, or the date only, is placed at the left below the sig-
natore*
LETTER WRITING 69
36. The Salutation. The form of the salatation de«
pends on the relation or degree of intimacy between the
correspondents. For the business and formal letter the
following forms are appropriate :
Dear Sir, Dear Madam.
Sir, Hadam, Gentlemen (very formal).
The form ^My dear Sir'' is considered more formal
than ^^ Dear Sir." It is customary in the business letter
to precede this salutation with the address of the recipient,
giving his name and title, residence or place of business.
In friendly letters this is omitted altogetiier or else placed
at the end of the letter.
For friendly letters or business letters to friends the
following forms are used :
My dear Mr. (or Miss or Mrs.) Winchester.
Dear Mr. (or Miss or Mrs.) Holmes.
Dear Uncle. My dear Prescott My dear Friend.
Here, too, those forms using the possessive pronoun are
more formal than those withoat it.
The salatation is punctuated in several ways. It may
be followed by a colon, by a colon and dash, by a comma,
or by a comma and dash. In business letters the colon
or colon and dash are preferred, while in familiar letters
the comma as least formal is preferred.
Note. Observe that the adjective dear is capitalized only
when it stands as the first word of the salatation.
37* The Body. Since the body contains the message
itself, it may assume any one of a number of forms accord-
ing to the purpose of the letter. It should, even in the
most familiar letter, be as carefully written as possible ; it
should have a beginning, a discussion, and a conclusion ; it
60 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
should be arranged in an orderly manner, properly para-
graphed, neatly and legibly written, and expressed in good
English.
38. The Complimentary Closing varies in form as does
the salutation, depending on the relation between the
writer and the recipient. For the business letter these
forms are appropriate :
Yours truly. Tours respectfully.
Very truly yours. Bespectf ully yours.
Truly yours. Very respectfully yours.
The forms with respectfully are used in letters to persons
to whom one wishes to show special respect. In business
letters between friends or acquaintances, the word sincerely
is frequently used in place of the word truly in the above
forms.
In familiar or friendly letters some of the common forma
are:
Yours sincerely. Yours affectionately.
Faithfully yours. Your loving daughter.
Cordially yours. Ever sincerely yours.
39. The Signature, except in familiar letters, should be
written as the writer expects to be addressed, and should be
clear and unaffected in form. It is advisable that the form
of signature be uniform, always written in one's own char-
acteristic way.
A woman writing to a stranger or a business firm signs
her name in full so that there can be no mistake in her
identity, indicating whether she is to be addressed as Miss
or Mrs. A married woman places, in addition to her sig-
nature, her name in the form by which she desires to be
addressed. Thus, if her signature is Mary Andrews DaviSj
she should write below her signature and at the left of the
LETTER WRITING 61
page, Mr8> James M. Davia^ or else prefix her title, in par-
entheses, to her signature. The signature would be as fol-
lows:
1. (Mrs.) Mary W. Pratt 3. (Miss) Sarah E. Perkins
or or
2. Mary W. Pratt 4. Sarah E. Perkins
(Mrs. J. B. PraU) Miss Sarah E. Perkins
Watertown, N. Y.
40. The Address or Superscription consists of the
name and address of the person to whom the letter is sent
and is written on the envelope. It should be written and
arranged thus :
Mr. Edward H. Brown Dr. Samuel Fairfield
1927 Peqaot Street Deering
Cleveland Maine
Ohio c/o Mr. M. L. Roberts
On the envelopes commas are not needed at the ends
of the lines of the address, although they are frequently
used. An abbreviation like Penn.^ however, always fol-
lows the rules for abbreviations. In addressing a letter
bear in mind that post-office officials read thousands of
such addresses daily, and that you may render their work
easier by making your writing legible and adopting no
irregularities in form of address.
41. Friendly Letters. In the friendly letter the
aim is to give pleasure by telling those things which
your correspondent wishes to know, by giving your
impressions, by telling your experiences ; in other
words, by admitting your friend into your thoughts^
feelings, and Hfe. The letter thus becomes a bit of
yourself. But it should represent the recipient too;
62 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
in writing a letter you should put yourself con-
stantly in his place. His interests and his tastes will
then determine what you write ; otherwise, the letter
will prove uninteresting to him. Thus, you write
to one friend of your interests in nature or books ;
to another, the gossipy news of the family or circle
of friends ; to a third, a detailed account of some
short trip you have taken. Moreover, you should^
while taking for granted an interest in yourself,
show a sympathetic interest in your correspondent's
life and affairs.
The keynote^ then, in vmting friendly letters ia
to keep the reader constantly in mind and write
such a letter as he will like to receive.
Specimen Letters
The following are examples of friendly letters. Read
them and note the characteristic features of each. Point
out the particular merits.
I
Letter from Fumr to Cornelhts TAomrs
Ton will certainly laugh (and laugh you may) when I tell
you, that your old acquaintance is turned sportsman, and has
taken three noble boars. What I (yoc^ will say, with astonish-
ment) Pliny! — even Tie, However, I indulge, at the same
time, my beloved inactivity ; and whilst I sat at my nets, yoa
would have found me, not with my spear, but my pencil and
tablet by my side. I mused and wrote, being resolved, if I re->
turned with my hands empty, at least to come home with my
memoranda fuU. Believe me, this manner of studying is not to
be despised : you cannot conceive how greatly exercise contrib«
LETTER WRITINQ 63
otes to enliven the imagination. There is, besides, something in
the solemnity of the venerable woods with which one is sur-
rounded, together with that profound silence which is observed
on these occasions, that strongly inclines the mind to meditation.
For the future, therefore, let me advise you, whenever yoa
hunt, to take your pencil and tablets with you, as well as your
basket ; for be assured yoa will find Minerva as fond of trar
versing the hills as Diana. Farewell.
n
Munich, Sept 2, 1883.
Dear Gertie, —
When I came away, the first man that wrote me a letter only
two days after the Servia had steamed out of New York Bay
was y<m. And now that I am coming home, the last letter which^
I write from the Old World to any man in America shall be to
you. For I want to tell you myself that I shall see you on Sep-
tember 22. I suppose you will not be quite able to run over to
the wharf at East Boston when the Cej>?uilonta gets in, but I
shall come up to see you just as soon as the custom-house people
let me out of prison, after I have paid the duties upon all the
heaps of presents I have got for you !
Was n't it good that the baths at Sharon helped you so much ?
I was at a place the other day where the people take baths for
rheumatism. It is called Bad Gastein, but it is n't bad at all ; it
is very good. It is away back in the hills, and there is a tre-
mendous waterfall which runs right through the house, and
keeps up such a racket you can't get any sleep. But that does
no great harm, because you have to take your bath so early
that, if it were not for the waterfall in the next room, you
would sleep over and never get any baths at all, and so some
time you might have rheumatism all your life. I did n't have
any rheumatbm, so I went and took a bath for yours, and I
think that is what made you feel so much better. Yoa thought
64 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
it was the baths yon were takiog at Sharon, bat it was really
the baths I was taking at Bad Gastein I
I wonder how soon you will come to see me when I get back.
Everybody here eats his breakfast, and luncheon, and dinner
out-doors. I like it, and think I shall do so myself when I get
home ; so when you come to breakfast, we will have our table
out on the grass plot in Newbury Street, and Katie shall bring
us our beefsteak there. Will it not make the children stare as
they go by to school ? We '11 toss the crumbs to them and the
robms. But you must hurry and get well, or we cannot do al\
this. My loye to Agnes and Tood.
Your affectionate Uncle, P.
[Phillips Brooks.]^
m
Vailima, Samoa, Sept. 9, 1894.
Dear Miss Middleton, — -
Your letter has been like the drawing up of a curtain. Of
course I remember you very well, and the Skye terrier to which
yon refer — a heavy, dull, fatted, graceless creature he grew
up to be — was my own particular pet. It may amuse you, per-
haps, as much as '^ The Inn " amused me, if I tell you what
made this dog particularly mine. My father was the natural god
of all do^s in our house, and poor Jura took to him of course.
Jura was stolen, and kept in prison somewhere for more than a
week, as I remember. When he came back Smearoch had come
and taken my father's heart from him. He took his stand like
a man, and positively never spoke to my father again from that
day until the day of his death. It was the only sign of character
he ever showed. I took him up to my room and to be my dog
in consequence, partly because I was sorry for him, and partly
because I admired his dignity in misfortune.
1 Copyright by B. P. Dutton & Go.
LETTER WRITING 66
Wiih best regards and thanks for having reminded me of so
many pleasant days, old acquaintances, dead friends, and —
what is perhaps as pathetic as any of them — dead dogs, I re-
main, yours triiiy,
RoBEBT Louis Steyembok.
Exercise 13
1. Write a friendly letter, a special point of which is
to express your thanks for a book borrowed, and your
pleasure in reading it.
2. Write a letter to your cousin, saying that you expect
to visit him during the Thanksgiving vacation, and ask
him to meet you at the train.
8. Write to one of your friends telling him of a pleas-
ant time you have had recently.
4. Write the following in letter form, being careful to
space and punctuate properly:
27 West Sixth Street Oswego N Y July 6 1911 My dear
Gladys your delightful letter came this morning and so dis-
pelled my state of blues that I feel disposed to pour forth my
gratitude but I cant I am just about to start on my journey
West Of course Im all anticipation and if it were not for the
thought that I am never to return to the old place to live I
should be perfectly content. I shall write yon at my first
opportunity. Father and mother join me in inviting you to
spend next summer with us on the ranch. Most sincerely yours
marion.
5. Write to a friend who has recently left your school
to go to some other school, telling him what has happened
since his departure.
6. Write a letter of sympathy to one of your friends,
supposing the occasion calling for your sympathy to be
one of the following :
66 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
& A heavy loss by reason of fire.
h. The defeat of the football team of which he is captfun.
6. His failure to win a debate for his school.
d. His failure to pass his college entrance examinations.
6. An accident which preyents his spending his vacation
in the mountains.
7. Write a letter to a member of your family from the
town where you have just found employment. Describe
the town, the people with whom you are associated, and
the work you are doing,
8. Find in the library good examples of friendly let-
ters. Select two to bring to class and point out the fea-
tures which make these letters of interest to you.
Note. Some of the best letters have been written by Ste-
Tenson, Thackeray, Scott, Lowell, Lamb, Irving, Thoreau,
Washington, Phillips Brooks, Edward FitzGerald, and Madame
de S^vign^.
9. Write a letter to a friend who did not enter high
school with you, urging him to enter with the next class
and explaining the advantages.
10. Your father has been away on an extended trip.
Write him about the happenings at home in which he will
be Interested.
11. Write a reply to exercise 10, describing the trip
and asking questions about home affairs.
12. Write a letter of congratulation.
13. In a letter to a friend, write what you have learned
from this chapter about letters of friendship.
42. Informal Notes. An informal note is much
like a friendly letter except that it is much shorter,
containing usually the single point for which it is
^tten. It should in general have the same form and
LETTER WRITING 67
be governed by the same rules as the longer letters.
The place and date, however, may be written out in
full at the end of the note instead of being placed
at the top of the page, or they may be omitted alto-
gether.
Examples of Infobmal Notes
I
My dear Elizabeth^
It will g^ve me great pleasare if you will
dine with us to-morrow, at six o'clock. I should like you and
my cousin Margaret Hall, who is visiting me this week, to know
each other.
Cordially yours,
Jean Alexander*
Bridgewater,
August first
n
Dear Jean,
It will give me great pleasure to dine with you to-
morrow at six and to meet Miss Hall again.
Sincerely yours,
Elizabeth Brown.
220 Oread St
August first
m
My dear Mrs. Longacre,
I am very sorry that a previous en-
gagement will deprive me of the pleasure of a drive through
the chestnut woods with you Friday. I regret it the more, be-
cause the woods must be beautiful just now in their autumn
colors. It was most kind of you to think of me.
Sincerely yours,
Charlotte Wing.
Wednesday, October &
68 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
43. Formal Notes. Formal notes are written in
the third person and are usually invitations or re-
plies to invitations. They have no heading, introduc-
tion, or conclusion. The address and date are at the
close, to the left of the page.
All replies, whether formal or informal, should
be sent at once in order that the host may know
how many guests to expect. These replies should re-
peat the day and hour mentioned in the invitation^
to prevent any mistake in the time.
TCiCAMPT.Tafl OF FOBMAL NOTES
I
Mr. and Mrs. William Green request the pleasure of Miss
Margaret Cushman's company at dinner on Wednesday eyen*
ing, May the second, at seven o'clock.
1218 Avon Road,
April twenty-seventh.
n
Miss Cnshman accepts with pleasure Mr. and Mrs. William
Green's kind invitation to dinner on Wednesday evening, May
the second, at seven o'clock.
68 Fourth Street,
April twenty-eighth.
in
Miss Cushman regrets that she is unahle to accept Mr. and
Mrs. William Green's kind invitation to dinner on Wednesday
evening, May the second.
68 Fourth Street,
April twenty-eighth.
LETTER WRITING 69
EXEBCISE 14
1. Examine the examples of formal and informal notea^
and point out the characteristic features of each.
2. Write an informal note inviting a friend to spend
the week-end with you at your summer camp.
8. Acknowledge the receipt of a Christmas gift.
4. Explain in an informal note to your teacher why
you are absent from school.
5. Write a formal note inviting an acquaintance to a
Hallowe'en party to be given at your home.
6. Write a formal note accepting the invitation in ex^
ercise 5.
7. Write a formal note of regret in reply to the same
invitation.
8. Write your hostess thanking her for the good time
she gave you during your visit.
9. Express in an informal note your appreciation of
sympathy extended to you.
10. Write a note inviting one of your teachers to lunch-
eon on Saturday.
11. One of your friends is moving to Boston. Ask your
cousin who lives there to call on him.
12. Write a note of apology to some friend whom you
have offended.
44. Business Letters. A good business letter has
for its chief characteristics brevity and clearness.
The business man has no time to waste, so the point of
the letter must be made clear to him in the briefest
possible space consistent with accuracy and courtesy.
There is no place for unbusinesslike, needless detail.
Those facts which the reader must know, which have
an immediate bearing upon the business at hand, are
70 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
given^ and no others. In your efforts to be brief,
however, clearness should not be forfeited for brev-
ity ; nor should necessary details be omitted. On the
other hand, the letter should not convey an impres-
sion that you are hurried. That so-called ^^ business
style " of writing which omits the pronoun and uses
certain shortened forms of expressions such as y'rs^
and rec'd, is in bad taste and should never be
adopted. The same rules for complete sentences hold
here as elsewhere in composition work.
If the letter is a reply, it should begin with a refer-
ence to the letter received ; it should answer definitely
all questions asked, and make such explanations as
are deemed necessary ; and it should bring up last
any new phase of the subject.
In paragraphing a business letter it is well to give
a separate paragraph to each of the points under
discussion so that each may stand out clearly and
definitely and at once attract the reader's attention.
Whenever a favor is asked in a letter other than
a friendly one, it is a good rule to enclose a stamp.
Examples of Business Lettebs
I
2350 Pearl St., Albany, N. Y.,
September 1, 1911.
Snperintendent C. H. Wilkins,
Buffalo, N. Y.
My dear Superintendent Wilkins :
Upon my return to the office this afternoon, I found your
telephone message relative to kindergarten furniture. I sup-
LETTER WRITING
71
posed, of coarse, that it had heen deliyered long ago. I will
write the factory in this mail to send the furniture at once, pro-
Tided it has not already gone forward.
Very truly yours,
James M. Colt.
226 Monroe Street,
Worcester, N. Y.,
December 15. 1910.
Governor Charles E. Howe,
Albany, N. Y.
Your Excellency : —
[or
My dear Sir : — ]
You do me great honor in appointing me a delegate to the
irrigation congress. I accept with pleasure, and shall try to ad-
vance the interests of our state.
Respectfully yours,
Addison E. Eilbourne.
m
The Outlook Company,
287 Fourth Avenue,
New York.
1068 Lewis Avenue,
Brooklyn, N. Y,
May 10, 191L
Gentlemen : —
Kindly note the following change of address: The new
address is 1068 Lewis Avenue, Brooklyn, N. Y. The old
address was 394 Fifth Avenue, Oak Park, 111. .
Very truly yours,
(Mrs.) Caroline Lee Roberts*
72 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
45. The Telegram. Another form of business
communication is the telegram. This must be clear
and brief. The usual length of the message is ten
words^ exclusive of date^ address^ and signature.
Example of Telegram
South Station, Boston,
Jan. 3, 191L
Mr. John Sands,
2 QaaU St,
Albany, N. Y.
Missed connections. Beach Albany to-night eleven thirty-
two. Telephone Father.
£dward L. Scott
EXEBCISE 15
1. Write a letter to the manager of a football team,
making arrangements for a game to be played in your
own town on a definite date.
2. You desire to enter college. Write a letter to the
secretary asking for some definite information as to
courses.
3. Write to John A. Lansing, a noted explorer, asking
him on what terms he would give a lecture for the benefit
of your High School.
4. Write a letter subscribing for The ToutK% Com-
panion^ sending an enclosure for the amount of the sub-
scription.
5. Write a letter to your school principal asking him
to tell you the date of the opening of school and to send
you a list of the books you will need for the fall term.
6. Write to the principal of some neighboring high
LETTER WRITING 78
fcliool, suggesting a debate between his school and your
own. State the conditions under which you would suggest
that the debate be conducted.
7. Write to the proprietor of a summer camp for boys
asking for a circular giving information about numbers,
location, and prices.
8. Write to A. 6. Spaulding and Brothers, Chicago,
asking them to send you a catalogue of sporting goods.
9. Answer one of the following advertisements :
a. Wanted. — Boy to work in doctor's office. W. B.
Hutton, M. D., 278 Central Ave.
h» Wanted. — Girl to sell Red Cross Stamps afternoons
daring December. Mary C. Peary, 1728 Albany Street
10. Your cousin is moving to Buffalo. Write a letter
introducing him to an old school friend.
11. Write a letter to some publishing house, ordering
two books that you need. Be sure to give all the necessary
details to insure getting exactly the books you desire.
12. Write to your principal asking him to write a letter
of recommendation for a position you wish to secure.
18. Write to some newspaper of which you are a sub-
scriber, and give instructions for having your address
changed from your former place of residence to your pre-
sent one.
14. Write to some firm asking them to send you de-
signs for a class pin. Explain the general style of pin the
class prefers.
15. Write to a Steamship Company asking for descrip-
tive circulars.
16. You wish to enter the Naval Academy at Annapo-
lis. Write a letter to the Senator from your district ask-
ing him how you can become eligible for examination.
17. Write headings, salutations, and the complimentary
74 mGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
closings that would be appropriate in writing to (1) the
Mayor ; (2) your minister ; (8) a doctor ; (4) the Board
of Education ; (5) a man much older than yourself ; (6)
a notec! mian of letters ; (7} an unmarried woman whom
you know only slightly; (8) the Superintendent of
Schools ; (9) a manufacturing concern ; (10) the chair-
man of a debating council.
18. One of the books sent in response to your order in
exercise 11 was not the book you wanted. Write to the
publishers calling attention to the fact and notifying them
of the return of the book.
19. The publishers acknowledge the receipt of the letter
and book (see exercise 18) and explain that the error
was due to the fact that you did not specify the edition
you preferred. Write this letter and your reply.
20. Adding date and address, express in a telegram of
not more than ten words, the following :
Your uncle has been unexpectedly called to San Francisco
and asks you to meet him at your station prepared to go with
him on a certain train.
21. Write the telegram you send in reply to the one
called for in exercise 20.
22. Upon your arrival at the Manhattan Hotel in New
York, you find your baggage has not arrived. Telegraph
the baggage master in Albany making inquiries and de-
scribing your baggage so that it may be identified. Use
not more than fifteen words.
CHAPTER 17
WRITTEN COMPOSITION: NARRATION
46. Introduction. The art of composition is ws'
quired by practice in self-expression. Obviously a
great deal of help is derived from reading what
others have written and from hearing what others
say ; but in the end it is a matter of expressing your
own self. If you find composition difficulty it is be-
cause there has not been sufficient practice to give
such a command over language as to make writing
and speaking easy.
47. Written Composition. The object in study-
ing written composition is to get practice in express^
ing one's self clearly, correctly, and forcefully. The
aim is precisely the same as in oral composition ; so
are the methods employed. Hence the two should
be practiced together. Written composition, how-
ever, is addressed to a reader who has no opportu-
nities to ask questions if he does not understand, or
to note intonations of the voice, expressions of the
face, and all those aids which the speaker uses to
convey his meaning. Only the word forms are be-
fore him, with such helps of interpretation as punc-
tuation can give. Therefore, the writer must so
express himself that the reader may readily under-
stand his meaning.
76 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
48. Form. We have already studied the form
of one kind of written composition of a distinctive
tjrpe ; that is> letter writing. There are certain essen-
tials of form in written composition in general, that
greatly help the reader to understand with ease and
pleasure. One of these, of no little importance, is a
neat and legible handwriting. Many misunderstand-
ings, delays, annoyances, and losses have resulted
because this mechanical process has been carelessly
done. Subject matter loses force when a paper is
faulty in form and arrangement.
It will greatly assist your readers if you adopt
the following suggestions for your written work :
1. Write on one side of the paper only.
2. Write the title in the middle of the paper, from one
to two inches from the top of the page. (See § 18, 7.)
8. Leave a line blank below the title.
4. Leave a margin of at least one inch at the left of
the page.
6. Indent the first line at least one inch from the mar-
ginal line. The first line of each paragraph should be in-
dented the same distance.
6. Do not divide a word at the end of a line, unless it
is a compound word and you can make the division come
between the two parts. If there is not space enough at
the end of the line for the whole word, put the word on
the next line. It is not necessary that the margin at the
right be straight. It may be kept fairly straight, however,
if you pay attention to the spacing of your words. Some
writers divide a word at the end of a line ; in that case
the division must come between two syllables*
WRTITEN COMPOSITION 77
EXEBCISE 16
1. Rewrite the following in your own words, paying
attention to the suggestions given in § 48.
Yea know, we French stormed Batbbon )
A mile or so away,
On a little mound. Napoleon
Stood on our storming-day ;
With neck out-thrust, you fancy how.
Legs wide, arms locked behind.
As if to balance the prone brow,
Oppressive with its mind*
Just as perhaps he mused, ^ My plans
That soar, to earth may fall,
Let once my army-leader Lannes
Waver at yonder wall," —
Out 'twizt the battery-smokes there flew
A rider, bound on bound
Full-galloping ; nor bridle drew
Until he reached the mound*
Then off there flung in smiling joy.
And held himself erect
By just his horse's mane, a boy ;
Tou hardly could suspect —
(So tight he kept his lips compressed.
Scarce any blood came through)
You looked twice ere you saw his breast
Was all but shot in two.
« Well," cried he, " Emperor, by God's grace
We Ve got you Ratbbon !
The marshal 's in the market-place.
And you '11 be there anon
78 mGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
To see yoar flag-bird flap his vans
Where I, to heart's desire,
Perched him I " The chief's eye flashed ; his phms
Soared ap again like fire.
The chief's eye flashed ; but presently
Softened itself, as sheathes
A film the mother-eagle's eye
When her bruised eaglet breathes ;
" You 're wounded I " " Nay," his soldier's pride
Touched to the quick, he said :
** I 'm killed, sire ! " And his chief beside,
Smiling the boy fell dead.
Robert Browning: Incident of the French Camp.
2. Bead in classical mythology the story of " Jason and
the Golden Fleece " or ^'Perseus and Medusa;" then write
it from memory.
8. Write a notice to be placed on the bulletin board,
stating that you have lost some article — a sweater, a class
pin, a watch, or a fountain pen. Tell when and where you
lost it, where it maybe returned to you, and describe it so
that it may be identified.
4. Write a short composition on one of the subjects you
have used for an oral composition in Chapter I. Be care-
ful about form.
Note. Consider whether your sentences read smoothly,
whother you have so expressed yourself that your readers will
understand you, and whether there is a point to your story.
49. Sentence Structure. Examine what you
have written in the above exercise. Are your sen-
tences for the most part long or short ? If you have
used short sentences to excess^ your composition
WRITTEN COMPOSITION 70
sounds jerky and choppy when read. On the other
hand^ if you have used long sentences altogether,
the result is monotonous and not easily understood.
Moreover, the long sentence is likely to contain
errors, because you have tried to crowd too much
into it. A combination of both long and short sen-
tences gives the most pleasing style. This will result
if you aim to make each sentence express just the
thing intended, inasmuch ascertain thoughts demand
the longer sentences for complete expression, while
others require short sentences. Watch your sentence
structure to see that it does not become monotonous.
Try to make each sentence editress one thought
clearly and completely.
50. The Written Paragraph. What was said in
connection with the oral paragraph applies also to
the written paragraph. Read again § 16 and note
what was said there about the necessity of a definite
topic and a definite plan in constructing a paragraph.
A paragraph, written or oral, is a group of sentences
all closely related and all developing a single topic.
Revise your paragraphs in written composition when
necessary to bring the sentences into closer relation
and to make them express your meaning more clearly.
Remember that they must all bear directly on the
topic expressed in the topic sentence. The length of
the paragraphs will depend on the nature of the
composition. In this connection compare the para-
graph length in the extracts from The Sketch Book
(p. 12) and 2'he Conspiracy of Pontiac (p. 21).
80 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
51. Fonns of Discourse. Thus far^ you have
studied the general principles of oral and written
composition and you have tried to apply these prin-
ciples in working out the exercises. We are now ready
to take up the four special kinds of composition^
or forms of discourse^ as they are generally called ;
namely, narration^ description, exposition or explan-
ation, and argument.
52. Purpose of Narration. The purpose of nar-
ration is to tell a story, to give a recital of events
which have actually occurred or might occur, in such
a way that the reader will understand the happening
nearly as well as if he had been present in person.
You have actually used narration when you have
told incidents from your own life, when you have
retold incidents from the lives of others, repeated
stories from verse and prose, and written letters of
news and happenings. Narration may be about real
or imagined events. In the one case, the incidents
must be true to life and to human nature ; in the
other, the incidents imagined must be probable, or
such as would be likely to occur under the conditions
imagined. In telling something that has actually
happened, you should remember that the report
must be truthful and accurate.
53. Time Order in Narration. A writer who
wishes to hold the attention of the reader and to
please him, will arrange his material according to
some definite plan. Since the material consists of a
series of events^ the most natural arrangement is
NARRATION 81
according to sequence of time. Keep in mind what
happened first, what next, and so on. Sometimes,
however, it is not possible to follow the time order
exactly, for several incidents bearing upon one an-
other may be taking place simultaneously. This
must be indicated by means of words, phrases,
clauses, and even sentences, which show the rela-
tion between events. In the case of biographies and
historical narratives, the time order is often disre-
garded for the sake of grouping events.
Bead the following and point out the expressions
which indicate time order. Make a list of such ex-
pressions.
At last his [Wolfe's] searching eyes caaght sight of a path-
way up the rugged sides of the cliffs along the river hank, some
distance ahove the city. Here was an opportunity not to he neg-
lected. One dark night Wolfe's army floated quietly down the
river in hoats and landed at the foot of the rocky heights. The
brave soldiers, with immense difficulty, pulled themselves and
their cannon up the steep ascent. Beaching the top, they quickly
overpowered the guard, which was too much astonished to make
resistance. In the mornings Wolfe's men were drawn up in
line of battle on the Plains of Abraham, less than a mile from
the walls of Quebec. Montcalm, astonished at what the English
had done, would not wait for an attack, but at once led his army
out on the open plain. The fighting was terrible, and the French
could not stand up against the withering fire of the English.
Wolfe led in a furious charge and, although twice pierced with
bullets, refused to give up until he received a mortal wound. It
was hard for him to die as long as the issue was in doubt, but
when, in his last moments^ he heard a shout of victory, he said.
82 mOH SCHOOL ENGLISH
^ Now, Grod be praised, I will die in peace." Montcalm was also in
the meantime mortally wounded, and in the hour of death was
equally heroic. When told that he could not live more than ten
or twelve hours he exclaimed, ^* Thank Grod, I shall not live to
see Quebec surrendered." A few days later Quebec passed from
French into English hands.
Adapted from Gobdy's History of the United States.
Through the whole of the next morning we were moving for-
ward among the hills. On the following day the heights closed
around us, and the passage of the mountains began in earnest.
Before the village left its camping-ground, I set forward in com-
pany with the Eagle-Father, a man of powerful frame, but with
a bad and sinister face. His son, a light-limbed boy, rode with us,
and another Indian, named The Panther, was also of the party.
Leaving the village out of sight behind us, we rode together up
a rocky defile. After a while, however, the Eagle-Father dis-
covered in the distance some appearance of game, and set off
with his son in pursuit of it, while I went forward with The
Panther. . . . We were excellent friends, and as we rode for-
ward through rocky passages, deep dells, and little barren plains,
he occupied himself very zealously in teaching me the Dahcotah
language. After a while we came to a grassy recess, where soma
gooseberry bushes were growing at the foot of a rock ; and these
offered such temptation to my companion that he gave over his
instructions, and stopped so long to gather the fruit, that before
we were in motion again the van of the village came in view. An
old woman appeared, leading down her pack-horse among the
rocks above. Savage after savage followed, and the little deU
was soon crowded with the throng.
Parkman: The Oregon Trail,
54. Selection of Material. The essential thing
in narration is that something should happen, that
NARRATION 83
there should be action; for unless there is action,
there can be, of course, no narration. The story must
have some point, as you have seen in connection with
your oral composition work, and the action should
lead up to this point. To bring out the point, there
must be a careful selection of material, for it is ob-
Tious that no story can be a complete record of what
happened. Select the important incidents which
bear directly upon the point of the story and disre-
gard all others. The point must not be disclosed
until the proper moment arrives; that is, until the
reader's interest is highest. He must be held in sus-
pense until this moment of highest interest. As soon
as it is reached, the narrative should come quickly
to an end. Only a brief conclusion should be neces-
sary.
If the time order is followed and the material is
skilfully selected, the successive events will naturally
group themselves in such a way as to develop the
chief point of interest, and will fall into three groups.
The first will include the events leading up to the
climax; the second, those events of greatest interest,
constituting the climax; the third, those which give
the result or conclusion of the narrative.
55. Outline. It is useful in studying narration to
write out a brief plan or outline of the story. In this
way you will note the order of incidents and the re-
lation between them, and hence be better prepared
for recitation.
The outline should be simple, consisting merely of:
84 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
a. Setting : time, place, and drciimstances.
b. Events leading up to point of highest interest, arranged
in time order, or according to some definite purpose.
c. Climax.
d. Conclusion.
Exercise 17
1. Bead again *^The Incident of the French Camp**
(p. 77) and "How They Brought the Good News from
Ghent to Aix " (p. 24), and express in a sentence the
point of each. Point out the action words.
2. Bead two or more of the following, and write tho
point of each :
<'The Wreck of the Hesperus," Longfellow.
"We are Seven," Wordsworth.
"Lucy Gray," Wordsworth.
^* Lochinvar," Scott.
"The Pied Piper of Hamelin," Browning.
" Sohrab and Bustum," Arnold.
8. What is the purpose of this anecdote in Julius
CcBsar ?
Cassius, Well, honour is the subject of my story.
I cannot tell what you [Brutus] and other men
Think of this life ; but, for my single self,
I had as lief not be as live to be
In awe of such a thing as I myself.
I was born free as Csesar ; so were you :
We both have fed as well, and we can both
Endure the winter's cold as well as he :
For once, upon a raw and gusty day.
The troubled Tiber chafing with her shores,
Cesar said to mei " Dar'st thou, Cassius, now
NARRATION 86
Leap in with me into this angry flood,
And swim to yonder point ? " Upon the word,
Accoutred as I was, I plunged in
And bade him follow ; so indeed he did
The torrent roar'd, and we did buffet it
With lusty sinews, throwing it aside
And stemming it with hearts of controversy;
But ere we could arrive the point propos'd,
Cfesar cried, " Help me, Cassius, or I sink 1 "
I, as ^neas, our great ancestor.
Did from the flames of Troy upon his shoulder
The old Anchises bear, so from the waves of Tiber
Did I the tired Cffisar. And this man
Is now become a god, and Cassius is
A wretched creature and must bend his body,
If CsBsar carelessly but nod on him.
4. Write or relate orally some anecdote of your child'*
hood. Be sure that it has a particular point, that the de-
tails are presented in their time order, and that they are
arranged so as to hold the interest of your reader or
listener.
5. Bead the following. Point out the words that express
action ; those that express time. Tell the fable in your own
words.
The Habb and the Tortoise
A wise tortoise creeping along said to herself : ^* 1 know I am
slow, but since I was made to creep on the ground, I will do
that the best I can, and rest content"
One day as she was plodding on, a hare came running up be-
hind her. ^^ Good morning, tortoise," he called out ; '^ how slow
you are. Would n't you like to be able to run as I do ? "
** 1 know you can run fast," admitted the tortoise, *^ but I
think I could beat you in a race."
86 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
" Beat me!*^ exclaimed the hare ; " I 'd like to see you try.**
^Very well," said the tortoise, '^ let us run the race. Mr. Fox«
over there, shall be the judge.*^
The fox decided upon the course and gave the word to start.
Away went the hare like the wind. On plodded the tortoise with
a slow, steady pace, but was soon left far behind. The hare look-
ing back after a time and seeing nothing of the tortoise, said to
himself : ^' I '11 stop and eat some of this young grass, then rest
awhile. I have time enough and to spare before friend Tortoise
comes along." So he ate some grass, then fell asleep.
When he woke, no tortoise did he see. He was not greatly dis-
turbed, however, for he thought he could easily overtake her,
and at his nimble pace reach the goal first Off he ran as fast as
he could, only to find her dozing comfortably at the goal enjoy-
ing her rest after she had won the race.
^^ Ah, ah I " laughed the fox, ^^ Slow and steady wins the
race." Adapted from ^sop.
6. Retell another of .Xsop's fables.
7. Bewrite an interesting anecdote you have read re-
cently in The YoutVs Companion or some other paper
or magazine.
8. In exercise 3 above a reference is made to .Xneas.
Bead of his adventures in Gayley's Classic Myths or
Bnlfinch's Age of Fable or the Classical Dictionary^ sjid
briefly outline the adventures. From your outline write
the story in your own words.
9. Find out about Ponce de Leon and his search for
the fountain of youth ; make a brief outline of the story,
and then write or tell it orally.
10. Belate orally or write an anecdote connected with
your school life.
11. (a) Bring to class a poem or a piece of prose narra-
tion which illustrates action on the part of the characters.
NARRATION 87
(&) Read Scott's '' Lochinvar." Make a list of all the
words which suggest or express action.
12. Write a letter in which you give an account of one
of the following ; introduce as much action as you can :
(a) My surprise on Christmas Day.
(b) An unpleasant experience.
(e) A caller I didn't expect
(d) A coasting accident.
13. Name three events of class interest that have oc-
curred in your city or town in the last year. Write a news
item of one of these.
14. Tell an occurrence that has interested you because
you were kept in suspense to see how it turned out.
15. From your daily paper select a narrative that in-
terests you and tell it to the class.
16. In what order should the following items about a
football game be arranged ? Write the narrative from the
outline made by rearranging the topics. Add to these
if necessary, and omit any which do not seem to you
to contribute to the point of your narrative. (Or make
a similar outline for some game you have actually wit-
nessed, and write that narrative.)
(1) The schools represented, (2) the score at the end of the
game, (8) the weather, (4) the touch-down during the last half,
(5) the names of the captains, (6) good plays during the game,
(7) the field, (8) the score, first half, (9) ovation at the end of
the game, (10) number of spectators, (11) the officials and sat-
isfaction (or dissatisfaction) with them.
17. Tell the story of "How They Brought the Good
News from Ghent to Aix" as Joris or Pirck might
tell it.
88 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
56, Points of View. There are four points of view
from which a story may be told. The narrator may
tell the story in the fii^t person as though he were
giving his own experience; he may tell his own
experiences in the third person; the author may
construct the whole story quite impersonally in the
third person ; or the story may be given as the repe-
tition of a story told by another.
Examples of the first method of narration are The
Ancient Mariner y Treasure Island, David Copper*
field, Jane Eyre, The Vicar of Wakefield, and
David Balfour. In these narratives the hero or one
of the main characters tells the story. A subordinate
character is sometimes made the narrator^ as in Dr.
Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, where the lawyer tells the
story. The dangers in this method are that an ap-
pearance of egotism may result from too frequent
use of pronouns of the first person ; and that the
writer may tell more than it is possible for a single
person to know. Only the things he sees or hears
himself or learns through report may be included.
The narrative may be written in the third person,
one of the characters telling his own experiences
from an impersonal point of view.
When the author tells the story in the third per-
son, he is not confined to what a single person may
see and hear. He is supposed to know not only
what each character does^ but what he thinks and
feels. The author is present in all places at all times.
This is called the omniscient point of view*
NARRATION 89
The fourth method of telling a story Is that used
by Chaucer in the Canterbury Tales. In these the
author merely reports the stories told by the differ-
ent Canterbury Pilgrims. This method is frequently
used in short stories and sketches.
Whatever method you choose in telling a story,
it is important that you keep to the same point of
view throughout. For short compositions, perhaps
the easiest method is to give your experiences and
observations in the first person.
Exercise 18
1. Review the principles laid down for oral expression
(pp. 9-36).
2. Make a list of all the narratives you have read in the
high school. Determine in the case of each
(a) The author's purpose in writing the story.
(Jb) From what point of view the narrative is told.
(c) What the story gains from being told from the
point of view chosen.
(d) Whether the point of view is consistently main-
tained throughout.
3. From what other points of view might the story of
Silas Mamer have been told? What would have been
gained or lost in thus telling it ?
4. Point out the advantages and disadvantages in having
Nolan in The Man Without a Country tell his own story.
5. Make a list of twenty-five words, phrases, or clauses
found in your reading that indicate time order or transi-
tion from one scene to another. From class suggestions
add to your list and keep it for reference when writing
narrative.
90 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
6. Tell the story of a fire (1) as a reporter might tell
iti (2) as a fireman might tell it; (3) as a spectator
might tell it; (4) as a person who escaped from the
building might teU it.
7. Discuss (a) introduction, (6) order of events, (c) the
ending, in Browning's ^^ Incident of the French Camp '^
(p. 77).
8. Write a narrative embodying a local legend or an
Indian tradition.
9. Tell orally a true, short story from
(a) The life of Greneral Lee.
(b) The life of George Washington.
(e) The life of some prominent man of your own day.
57. Unity in Narration. Unity in narration is con-
cerned with this selection of material, and demands in
the simple narrative the omission of any details or in-
cidents which mar the time sequence, or which are not
closely connected with the thread of the narrative. For
example, a narrator giving an account of an ocean trip
should not introduce incidents which preceded op
followed the trip or which happened outside the trip,
unless in some way they have direct bearing on the
point of his story.
In more complex narrative — that is, narrative
with plot — we have a series of incidents more or
less complicated through the introduction of oppos-
ing forces or obstacles. Here unity demands that all
incidents help to bring out the point or to fulfill the
author's purpose in telling the story. All should lead
toward the climax and work together to leave in the
NARRATION 91
reader's mind a single strong impression. It is clear
that keeping to a definite point of view is one aid in
maintaining unity.
58. Coherence in Narration. Coherence governs
the arrangement of details and incidents. In a simple
narrative^ keeping the events in their chronological
order (see § 53) insures coherence. A further aid in
maintaining coherence is the use of transitional ex-
pressions which make clear the time sequence. Note
again the list of expressions you made in Exercise 18,
Ex. 5 (p. 89). In narrative with plot, in which it is
impossible to keep events in their time order because
they are happening simultaneously, these transitional
expressions are of even greater usefulness. They keep
clear in the reader's mind, not only the time relation
between events, but also the connection between
different groups of characters.
59. Climax. Every story should have a point, which,
it has been seen, should not be revealed to the reader
or hstener until his interest is highest. In the selec-
tion and arrangement of story material, keep in mind
the fact that the point of the story must not be fore-
seen by the reader. Suspense is a most important ele-
ment in story telling, in leading up to the moment
of highest interest or climax.
60. The Introduction or Setting. The purpose of
the introduction is twofold : to arouse the interest of
the reader, and to make clear to him the situation
at the beginning of the action so that he may under-
stand and enjoy the narrative. Such general circum-
92 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
stances as time, place, characters, and conditions
should be given — just what particulars are deter-
mined by the story itself. There is no general rule
except that all explanatory matter should be brief.
Note the following beginnings:
(1) One September night a family had gathered round their
hearth, and piled it high with driftwood of mountain streams,
the dry cones of the pine, and the splintered ruins of great trees
that had come crashing down the precipice. Up the chimney
roared the fire, and brightened the room with its broad blaze.
The faces of the father and mother had a sober gladness ; the
children laughed ; the eldest daughter was the image of Happi*
ness at seventeen ; and the aged grandmother, who sat knitting
in the warmest place, was the image of Happiness grown old.
They had found the ^* herb, heart's-ease," in the bleakest spot
of all New England. This family were situated in the Notch of
the White Hills, where the wind was sharp throughout the year,
and pitilessly cold in the winter, — giving their cottage all its
fresh inclemency before it descended on the valley of the Saco.
They dwelt in a cold spot and a dangerous one ; for a mountain
towered above their heads, so steep that the stones would often
rumble down its sides and startle them at midnight.
The daughter had just uttered some simple jest that filled
them all with mirth, when • • •
Hawthorne : The Ambitious Guest
(2) << Tes," said the dealer, " our windfalls are of various
kinds. Some customers are ignorant, and then I touch a dividend
on my superior knowledge. Some are dishonest," and here he
held up the candle, so that the light fell strongly on his visitor,
<< and in that case," he continued, '< I profit by my virtue."
Stevenson: Markheinu
NARRATION 93
(8) The antumn batch of recraits for the Old Regiment had
jost been uncarted. As usual they were said to be the worst
draft that had ever come from the Depot Mulvaney looked them
over, granted scornf ully, and immediately reported himself very
fiick.
^^ Is it the regular autumn fever ? " said the doctor, who knew
something of Terence's ways. '' Your temperature 's normaL"
KiPLiNa: His Frivate Honour.
(4) Let it be clearly understood that the Russian is a delight-
ful person till he tucks his shirt in. As an Oriental he is charm-
ing. It is only when he insists upon being treated as the most
easterly of western peoples, instead of the most westerly of east-
ems that he becomes a racial anomaly extremely difficult to
handle. The host never knows which side of his nature is going
to turn up next.
Dirkovitch was a Russian . • •
EiPLixa: TTie Man Who Was.
(5) The parents were abed and sleeping. The clock on the
wall ticked loudly and lazily, as if it had time to spare. Outside
the rattling windows there was a restless, whispering wind. The
room grew light, and dark, and wondrous light again, as the
moon played hide-and-seek through the clouds. The boy, wide-
awake and quiet in his bed, was thinking of the Stranger and
his stories;
'* It was not what he told me about the treasures," he said to
lumself , '^ that was not the thing which filled me with so strange
a longing. I am not greedy for riches. But the Blue Flower ia
what I long for."
Van Dyke : Ths Blue Flower.
6i. The Plot. The plot is the most important
part of the narrative. We have seen that a narrative
may consist of a simple incident told to bring out a
94 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
certain point, ^whicli may be stated, as in the fable, or
left for the reader to discern. We may have also
a more complex narrative involving a complication
of incidents and of characters ; that is, a story with
a plot. The main issue of the story is advanced by
certain episodes, retarded by others ; certain charac-
ters set themselves against other characters ; one set
of characteristics in the individual is at war with
other characteristics ; while inanimate things, physi-
cal obstructions, may act as a help or a hindrance to
the action. These negative and positive forces serve
to tangle the thread of the story and to complicate
the situations, thereby increasing the suspense of the
reader.
The reader's pleasure is enhanced if the element
of surprise is introduced in the complications leading
up to the climax, or in the climax itself, or in the
final straightening out of the complications.
62. The Conclusion. The conclusion must be
brief. Sometimes, indeed, no conclusion is needed ;
the story ends as soon as it reaches the point toward
which all the incidents have led. Often, however,
the reader is not quite satisfied, — he wishes to
know how it all ended ; so a concluding paragraph
(or a whole chapter in a novel) is necessary. Here
all the complications are cleared up and the reader
is satisfied as to the future of the characters. A
long conclusion indicates that the story has not been
effectively told, that the necessary explanatory matter
has not been put in the right place.
NARRATION 96
Exercise 19
1. From some narrative you have read recently, make
a list of ten incidents. Show to the class how each
(a) Is related to the main issue of the story or helps to
effect the author's purpose.
(V) Acts as a retarding or advancing influence in the
story.
2. Bring to class two sentences and two paragraphs
found in narrative writing, that serve to secure the transi-
tion necessary for coherence.
3. Relate orally an anecdote connected with the life of
some member of your family. Be sure that you have the
point definitely in mind and that you present the details
coherently and interestingly.
4. Tell to the class the story of some battle or relate
some historical event. Be careful to keep the time order
and to make use of transitional expressions.
6. Bring to class a news item that may be criticized for
unity and coherence. Show wherein it might be improved.
6. Retell an interesting experience or anecdote in the
life of Samuel Johnson. Many interesting ones may be
found in Boswell's Life of Johnson.
7. Tell an occurrence that has recently interested you
because you were held in suspense as to the outcome.
8. Point out the purpose served by each of the introduc-
tions quoted in § 60.
9. From some book you have read in school — Treasure
Island^ Silas Marner^ The Merchant of Venice^ Julius
Cmsar^ or any other involving narrative — make a list of
five retarding and five advancing forces for the main
issue. These forces may be the actions of characters, epi-
sodes, characteristics in an important character, or inani-
mate things like surroundings, time, weather conditions.
% HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
10. Using Hawthorne's introduction quoted on page
92, write from imagination
(a) A simple incident in the family life.
(b) A story in which there are at least two forces at work
opposing the movement of the action. What possihle
force does the introdaction itself suggest ?
11. (a) Bring to class examples found in your reading
of a story which begins with action or dialogue, and one
which begins with description or explanatory matter.
(5) Discuss the appropriateness of the beginning of
each.
12. Bring to class the beginning of a short story yon
have read. Give enough of the narrative so that the situa-
tion is clear and suggests a story. Exchange papers with
one of your classmates, and finish the story from the in-
troduction given you.
18. The following expressions suggest complications in
the thread of a story. Choosing one, write the story it
suggests, bringing the phrase or sentence into your story
at the appropriate point :
(a) We reached the house at last but it was dark — silent
— tenanUess!
(b) Suddenly a flame shot up and
(e) His strength was fast failing under his superhuman effort
to reach
(d) I called again and again before I realized I was im-
perilling
(e) The engine gave a sudden throb then stopped •
(/) As we had feared, the stone loosened and —
14. Trace the story written in Ex. 13 through the out-
line form, pointing out the incidents leading to the climax.
Is your climax sustained by them ?
NARRATION 97
15. Write a narrative in which the climax is reaehfid
by a series of incidents. Suggested subjects:
(a) Devastations of a storm.
{b) A day of mishaps.
(c) A forgotten purse.
(d) A lucky adventure.
16. Find two examples of a good conclusion, and two
conclusions which contain too much explanatory matter.
17. Make a comparison between Thackeray's (or George
Eliot's or Dickens's) way of telling a story and that of
Hawthorne, Stevenson, Kipling, or some other modem
story writer. Discuss the subject, touching the various
points indicated by the paragraph headings of this chapter.
63. Action in Narration. The prime essential of
narration is action, to which the special interest and
thrilling force of the narrative is due. The move-
ment of the story may be swift or slow in accordance
vnth the purpose of the author. When the reader is
to be held in great suspense and the excitement is
high, the action must be rapid; when there is a mo-
ment of relaxation to bring out more forcefully the
moment of high interest, the action will be retarded;
but action there must be, else there is no narration.
Action words and phrases are of great importance^
as is seen in the following:
(1) With sloping masts and dipping prow,
As who pursued with yell and blow
Still treads the shadow of his foe,
And forward bends his head,
The ship drove fast, loud roared the blast
And southward aye we fled.
Colehidge: The AncierU Mariner.
98 mOH SCHOOL ENGLISH
(2) At last, after a silent, deadly, exhaasting straggle, I got
my assailant under by a series of incredible efforts of strength.
Once pinned, with my knee on what I made out to be its chest,
I knew that I was victor. I rested for a moment to breathe. I
heard the creature beneath me panting in the darkness, and felt
the violent throbbing of a heart It was apparently as exhausted
as I was; that was one comfort At this moment I remembered
that I usually placed under my pillow, before going to bed, a
large yellow silk pocket handkerchief, for use during the night
I felt for it instantly ; it was there. In a few seconds more I had,
after a fashion, pinioned the creature's arms.
FrrznjAMES O'Bbikn . What Was It? A Mystery.
64. Description in Narration. Since the reader must
picture the scenes of the story^ details of motion and
specific reference to actions^ sounds, smells, sights,
and sensations in general aia the imagination. A cer-
tain amount oi description adds clearness and charm
to narration. Yet this uescrij^tion is in effect narra-
tion, because that which is aescribed is depicted not
for its own sake, but for the effect which it has upon
the story. By means of it the writer produces the
proper setting for his incidents, creates an atmos-
phere which heightens the effect of his climax, or
depicts character through a word picture.
Note the use of description in the following selec-
tions which illustrate the effectiveness of concrete de-
tails. Point out the words and phrases which stir the
imagination.
(1) He looked at these trees with a start. They reminded
him of the graceful shafts crowned with long leaves which dis*
tinguished the Saracen columns of the cathedral at Aries. But
NARRATION 99
when, after having counted the palms, he cast his eyes on the
sniTounding plain, the most frightful despair settled on his soul.
He saw the limitless ocean. The dark sands of the desert ex-
tended as far as the eye could reach in every direction, and
glittered like a steel blade in bright sunlight. It appeared to
him like a sea of glass, or a succession of lakes united as a fold-
ing mirror. Borne upward in great billows, a fiery vapor seethed
above the quivering earth. The sky had an Oriental brilliance
and a provoking purity, which no power of imagination could
surpass. The sky and earth were on fire. The silence was awful
in its savage and terrible majesty. Infinite immensity in every
direction weighed down upon his soul : not a cloud in the sky,
not a breath in the air, not a speck on the bosom of the desert,
heaving in almost invisible waves. The horizon ended, as it does
at sea on a clear day, in one line of light as sharp as the cut of
a sabre. The man hugged the trunk of one of the palms as if it
had been the body of a friend ; then, in the shelter of the narrow
shadow which the tree threw upon the granite rock, he wept as he
sat immovable, contemplating with profound sadness the relent-
less scene which presented itself to his eyes. He cried out to try
the solitude. His voice, lost in the hollows of the hill, returned
a feeble sound far ofi! without wakening an answering echo : the
echo was in his own heart.
Balzao : A Passion in the Desert.
(2) As soon as the last chain was up, the man rejoined me.
He was a mean, stooping, narrow-shouldered, clay-faced creature ;
and his age might have been anything between fifty and seventy.
His nightcap was of flannel, and so was the nightgown that he
wore, instead of coat and waistcoat, over his ragged shirt. He
was long unshaved ; but what most distressed and even daunted
me, he would neither take his eyes away from me nor look me
fairly in the face. What he was, whether by trade or birth, was
more than I could fathom ; but he seemed most like an old, un-
100 mOH SCHOOL ENGLISH
profitable serving-man, who should have been left in charge of
that big house upon board wages.
Steyenson: Kidnapped.
(3) And now there came both mist and snow.
And it grew wondrous cold :
And ice, mast high, came floating by.
As green as emerald.
The ice was here, the ice was there,
The ice was all around :
It cracked and growled, and roared and howled.
Like voices in a swound.
A speck, a mist, a shape, I wist !
And still it neared and neared :
As if it dodged a water-sprite.
It plunged and tacked and veered.
But soon there breathed a wind on me,
Nor sound nor motion made :
Its path was not upon the sea,
In ripple or in shade.
It raised my hair, it fanned my cheek
Like a meadow gale of spring —
It mingled strangely with my fears,
Yet it felt like a welcoming.
• «.•••••
Swiftly, swiftly flew the ship,
Yet she sailed softly too :
Sweetly, sweetly blew the breeze —
On me alone it blew.
Colebidge: The Andent Mariner.
NARRATION 101
65. Characterization in Narration. Of almost equal
interest with action in narration are the characters
themselves. We become acquainted with them as
though they were real personages, by watching their
struggles and achievements, by learning their mo-
tives, thoughts, and feelings. Some authors are espe-
cially skilful in making their characters real and
lifelike. Study the methods of such authors and see
wherein their skill lies.
Characters are presented by means of personal
descriptions, as is seen in selection (2) on page 99,
by explanations of their characteristic traits, by what
they do and say, by conversation, and by what other
characters say of them. Often a single element of
personal appearance, a characteristic turn of phrase^
a peculiarity of manner or gesture will individualize
a person more clearly than pages of descriptions.
Long and detailed descriptions or explanations re-
tard the action; and characterization, important
though it be, must always be subordinate to action.
In writing narrative, try to develop only two or
three characters distinctly and even in these leave
out minor details. Observe closely people about you,
noting characteristics. Try to reproduce these char-
acteristics so that your reader will be able to picture
the person.
Study the following selection as portraying char-
acter:
(1) I was ia fall career, when I heard the coagh right over-
head, and jumping back and looking up, beheld a man's head in
102 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
a tall nightcap, and the bell mouth of a blnnderbass, at one of
the first-story windows.
" It 's loaded," said a voice.
<' I have come here with a letter," I said, <' to Mr. Ebenezer
Balfour of Shaws. Is he here ? "
" From whom is it ? " asked the man with the blunderbuss.
" That is neither here nor there," said I, for I was growing
Tery wroth.
" Well," was the reply, " ye can put it down upon the door«
step, and be off with ye."
" I will do no such thing," I cried, " I will deliver it into Mr.
Balfour's hands, as it was meant I should. It is a letter of in-
troduction."
"A what? " cried the voice sharply.
I repeated what I had said.
** Who are ye, yourself ? " was the next question, after a con-
siderable pause.
^' I am not ashamed of my name," said I. '* They call me
David Balfour."
At that, I made sure the man started, for I heard the blun-
derbuss rattle on the window-sill ; and it was after quite a long
pause, and with a curious change of voice, that the next ques-
tion followed :
" Is your father dead ? "
I was so much surprised at this, that I could find no voice to
answer, but stood staring.
^^Ay," the man resumed, ^^he'll be dead, no doubt; and
that '11 be what brings ye chapping to my door." Another pause,
and then defiantly, " Well, man," he said, " I '11 let ye in " ; and
he disappeared from the window.
Stevenson: Kidnapped,
(2) She was a small woman, short and straight-waisted like
a child in her browu cotton gown. Her forehead was mild and
NARRATION 103
benevolent between the smooth curves of gray hair ; there were
meek downward lines about her nose and mouth ; but her eyes,
£xed upon the old man, looked as if the meekness had been the
result of her own will.
Mary E. Wilkins: The Revolt of Mother.
(3) " Mr. Peggotty ! " says I.
"Sir," says he.
<' Did you give your son the name of Ham, because you lived
in a sort of ark ? "
Mr. Peggotty seemed to think it a deep idea, but answered*'
" No, sir. I never gin him no name."
" Who gave him that name, then ? " said I, putting question
number two of the catechism to "Mr. Peggotty.
" Why, sir, his father giv it him," said Mr. Peggotty.
" I thought you were his father ! "
" My brother Joe was his father," said Mr. Peggotty.
'' Dead, Mr. Peggotty ? " I hinted after a respectful pause.
" Drowndead," said Mr. Peggotty.
I was very much surprised that Mr. Peggotty was not Ham's
father, and began to wonder whether I was mistaken about his
relationship to anybody else there. I was so curious to know,
that I made up my mind to have it out with Mr. Peggotty.
"Little Emly," I said, glancing at her. "She is your
daughter, is n't she, Mr. Peggotty ? "
" No, sir. My brother-in-law, Tom, was her father."
I couldn't help it. "Dead, Mr. Peggotty?" I hinted after
another respectful silence.
" Drowndead," said Mr. Peggotty.
Dickens : David Copperfield.
66. Conversation in Narration. You have just seen
in the above excerpts one use of conversation. Be-
sides revealing characteristics^ it often furthers action
104 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
and helps to develop the plot. It is always a pleasue
to read good conversation, for it gives variety and
adds zest and reality to a story. But conversation
most be natural and true to the type of person speak-
ing, otherwise it sounds forced and is out of keeping.
To write interesting and significant conversation
requires effort. Study the conversations in dramas^
novels, and short stories as models, and when you
hear conversations with point and vivacity practice
reproducing them. In the reproduction try to vary
the form of '' he said." Note the substitutes used by
successful writers.
67. KJnds of Narrative. There are various kinds
of narrative, including the anecdote, the biography,
sketches of travel, history, the so-called " reporter's
story," the short story^ and the novel. With these
forms you are already familiar.
Exercise 20
1. Write a narrative telling some .legend or tradition
or historical event connected with your own locality. Can
you introduce description effectively ?
2. Tell the story of some narrow escape (a) as a re-
porter would tell it, (6) as one of the participants would
tell it.
8. Write a brief biography of three hundred or more
words, of some prominent man whom you admire. Belate
two or more interesting incidents or.anecdotes connected
with his life.
4. Write a sketch of some man important in the na-
tion's affairs, such as would be appropriate for a' history.
NARRATION 105
5. (a) Make a list of as many authors of short stories
as you know. Discuss the relative merits of these authors.
(6) Name five examples of each kind of narrative men-
tioned in § 67.
6. In the narratives written in Exercise 19 : Exs. 12-
15, p. 96, have you made use of description, conversa-
tion, concrete details, and characterizations? Rewrite one
of these stories, trying to improve it in these respects.
7. Read a humorous story by Mark Twain. Retell the
story to the class. Relate a humorous incident from your
own experience.
8. Describe concretely, by conversation or otherwise,
the character you imagine in one of the following :
(a) A highly imaginative youth doomed by circumstances to
monotonous drudgery.
(b) A proud-spirited girl, serious in purpose, thrown in con-
tact with wealthy, fun-loving girls.
(c) A woman, a lover of flowers and of nature in all forms,
dwelling apart, living alone in a quiet village.
{d) A small boy, joyous, optimistic, dwelling in the slum dis-
tricts, helpful to many in various walks of life.
9. Write a short story about one of the characters de-
scribed in Ex. 8. Introduce a conversation, being sure to
make it appropriate to the persons speaking.
10. Reread your favorite short story, noting carefully
the structure, the descriptions, the order of incidents, the
conversation, and the climax ; then tell it to the class.
Point out the elements of suspense.
11. Bring to class (a) a significant conversation you
have found in your reading ; (6) a telling bit of descrip-
tion that gives an impression or creates an atmosphere
suitable to the story ; and (c) a forceful characteriza-
tion.
106 fflGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
12. Write a narrative that shows character by means
of conversation. Suggested subjects :
(a) My experience with a peculiar neighbor.
(b) Waiting for a delayed train at a country junction.
(c) At the bargain counter.
(d) On the street car (an affable conductor, an irritable man,
sympathetic onlookers).
(e) An interesting vacation experience.
(/) The old lighthouse keeper.
13. Write an account of some event at your school for
your school paper. Suggested subjects :
(a) A recent dramatic entertainment.
(b) A football, baseball, or any other game.
(c) A mass meeting.
(d) A class election.
{e) Preliminary trial for an interscholastic debate.
(/) A supposed fire.
14. Write an account of a recent trip you have taken,
or relate the story of some friend's travels.
15. Read a narrative poem and write the story in your
own words. Point out the climax and the-elements of sus-
pense. Suggested poems :
Arnold : *^ Sohrab and Rustum."
Pope : " The Rape of the Lock."
Bums: "Tam o' Shanter."
Wordsworth : " Laodamia."
Ballads : old and later English.
Tennyson : " The Revenge," or one of the Idylls.
16. (a) Study the following ; point out the use of de-
scription. Supply the retarding incident suggested by
^^this ill-timed intruder was." What elements of good
narration aro present?
NARRATION 107
A moment*s glance was enough to satisfy Catherine that her
apartment was very unlike the one* which Henry had endeav-
oured to alarm her hy the description of. . . . Her heart at
ease on this point, she resolved to lose no time in particular ex-
amination of anything, • • • Her eye suddenly fell on a large
high chesty standing back in a deep recess on one side of the
fire-place. The sight of it made her start; and forgetting
everything else, she stood gazing on it in motionless wonder,
while these thoughts crossed her :
^^ This is strange, indeed ! I did not expect such a sight as
this \ An immense heavy chest ! What can it hold ? Why should
it be placed here ? Pushed back, too, as if meant to be out of
sight ! I will look into it ; cost me what it may. I will look into
it, and directly too — by daylight. If I stay till evening my
candle may go out." She advanced and examined it closely ; it
was of cedar, curiously inlaid with darker wood, and raised
about a foot from the ground on a carved stand of the same.
The lock was silver, though tarnished f iy)m age ; at each end
were the imperfect remains of handles also of silver, broken
perhaps prematurely by some strange violence ; and on the cen-
ter of the lid, was a mysterious cypher in the same metal. Cath-
erine bent over it intently, but without being able to distinguish
anything with certainty. , • .
Her fearful curiosity was every moment growing greater;
and seizing with trembling hands the hasp of the lock, she re-
solved, at all hazards, to satisfy herself at least as to its con-
tents. With difficulty, for something seemed to resist her
efforts, she raised the lid a few inches ; but at that moment a
sudden knocking at the door of the room made her, starting,
quit her hold, and the lid closed with alarming violence. This
ill-timed intruder was • • . At length, however . . . One
moment surely might be spared; and so desperate should be
the exertion of her strength, that unless secured by super-
108 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
natural means, the lid in one moment should be thrown back.
With this spirit she sprang forward, and her confidence did not de-
ceive her. Her resolute effort threw back the lid, and gave to her
astonished eyes the view of a white cotton counterpane, properly
folded, reposing at one end of the chest in undisputed possession.
Adapted from Jane Austen : Northanger Abbey.
(li) Tell the story which the following setting suggests,
paying particular attention to suspense and descriptive
elements:
[Catherine later returns to the room assigned her in the old
abbey.] The night was stormy ; the wind had been rising at
intervals the whole afternoon ; and by the time the party broke
up, it blew and rained violently. . • • She listened to the tem-
pest with sensations of awe . . . felt for the first time that she
was really in an abbey. • • . Her spirits were immediately as-
sisted by the cheerful blaze of a wood fire. ..." How glad
I am that Northanger is what it is ! If it had been like some
other places, I do not^know that, in such a night as this, I could
have answered for my courage ; but now, to be sure, there is
nothing to alarm one." ... A glance at the old chest was
not without its use ; she scorned the causeless fears of an idle
fancy and began with a most happy indifference to prepare her-
self for bed . . • the fire therefore died away ; and Catherine
• • . giving a parting glance around the room, was struck by
the appearance of a high, old-fashioned black cabinet, which,
though in a situation conspicuous enough, had never caught her
notice before. . . .
Adapted from Jane Austen : Northanger Abbey,
(c) Study the following ballad for such elements of
good narration as
(1) Movement, action.
(2) Central interest
NARRATION 109
(3) Concentration of interest on the important stages of ac-
tion.
(4) Concrete diction.
(5) Single impression.
(6) Descriptive elements, vivid pictures.
Sib Patrick Spenb
The king sits in Damferling toone^
Drinking the blude-reid wine :
<* O whar will I get goid sailor.
To sail this schip of mine ? ''
Up and spak an eldem knicht,
Sat at the kings richt kne :
*' Sir Patrick Spence is the best sailar^
That sails upon the se."
The king has written a braid letter,
And signd it wi his hand,
And sent it to Sir Patrick Spence^
Was walking on the sand.
The first line that Sir Patrick red,
A loud lauch lauched he ;
The next line that Sir Patrick red^
The teir blinded his ee.
<' O wha is this has don this deid,
This ill deid don to me,
To send me out this time o' the yeir.
To sail upon the se !
** Mak hast, mak haste, my mirry men all.
Our guid schip sails the morne : "
no HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
*< O say na sae, my master deir.
For I f eir a deadlie storme.
^ Late, late yestreen I saw the new moone^
Wi the auld moone in hir arme,
And I f eir, I feir, my deir master.
That we will cum to harme."
O our Scots nobles wer richt laith
To weet their cork-heild schoone;
Bot lang owre a' the play wer playd^
Thair hats they swam aboone.
O lang, lang may their ladies sit,
Wi thair fans into their hand.
Or eir they see Sir Patrick Spence
Cum sailing to the land.
O lang, lang may the ladies stand,
Wi thair gold kems in their hair.
Waiting for thair ain deir lords.
For they '11 se thame na mair.
Haf owre, haf owre to Aberdonr,
It 's fif tie f adom deip,
And thair lies guid Sir Patrick Spence^
Wi the Scots lords at his feit.
17. Tell the story suggested to you by the picture
entitled ^^ Marriage a la Mode " (facing p. 173).
18. Tell an incident from the lives of the people pic-
tured in one of the following :
(a) "The Hunter's Story " (facing p. 109).
(ff) ^< Blind Milton Dictating < Paradise Lost' to his Daugh-
ter" (facing p. 319).
CHAPTER V
DESCRIPTION
68. Definition of Description. In the study of
narration we have seen that the writer often tells his
story in such a way that the reader pictures the scenes
and characters. The whole story then is a series of
pictures following one another in quick succession.
These pictures are suggested to the mind of the
reader by means of the presentation of certain de-
tails. Such a presentation of details, the aim of which
is to suggest a picture to the mind of a reader or
hearer, is a description. This form of discourse oc-
curs alone, but is more frequently found in con-
nection with narration.
69. Purpose of Description. The purpose of de-
scription is to present the thing described so that
the reader may see it as the writer has seen it, that
both may have the same impression. Hence clearness
is an essential quality of all description. In order to
give a clear description, it is necessary (1) to observe
closely and form a clear mental picture, (2) to bring
out the main features and give a general impression
of the object described, (3) to add the details essential
to present the complete picture, by means of descrip-
tive words.
112 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
70. Pictures and Description. It is not to be
expected that a description can present an object
or scene as clearly and accurately as a picture can..
It cannot, for instance, make the fine distinctions in
color and outline, nor can it present the details in a
single instant as a picture can. Nevertheless a de-
scription has a few advantages over a picture. A
picture gives only those images which can be re-
ceived through the eye, while a description may
give sound, odor, motion, temperature, sense of
feeling, and other impressions which the picture
can only suggest. Moreover, the description can
tell what went before and what came after the
single instant represented in the picture, which
oftentimes remains unintelhgible simply because
it cannot tell what has preceded.
In the following descriptions, what details could
not be portrayed in a picture?
It was pretty late Id the aatumn of the year, when the de-
clining sun, struggling through the mist which had obscured it
ell day, looked brightly down upon a little Wiltshire village,
within an easy journey of the fair old town of Salisbury.
Like a sudden flash of memory or spirit kindling up the mind
of an old man, it shed a glory upon the scene, in which its
departed youth and freshness seemed to live again. The wet
grass sparkled in the light ; the scanty patches of verdure in the
hedges — where a few green twigs yet stood together bravely,
resisting to the last the tyranny of nipping winds and early
frosts — took heart and brightened up ; the stream which had
been dull and sullen all day long, broke out into a cheerful
smile ; the birds began to chirp and twitter on the naked boughs.
DESCBIPTION 113
as tiiough the hopeful creatures half believed that winter had
gone by, and spring had come already. The vane upon the
tapering spire of the old church glistened from its lofty station
in sympathy with the general gladness ; and from the ivy-shaded
windows such gleams of light shone back upon the glowing
sky, that it seemed as if the quiet building were the boarding-
place of twenty summers, and all their ruddiness and warmth
' were stored within.
Even those tokens of the season which emphatically whis-
pered of the coming winter, graced the landscape, and, for the
moment, tinged its livelier features with no oppressive air of
sadness. The fallen leaves, with which the ground was strewn,
gave forth a pleasant fragrance, and subduing all harsh sounds
of distant feet and wheels, created a repose in gentle unison
with the light scattering of seed hither and thither by the distant
husbandman, and with the noiseless passage of the plow as it
turned up the rich brown earth, and wrought a graceful pattern
in the stubbled fields. Dickens : Martin ChuzzlewU.
The faint, foggy daylight glimmered dimly on the bare floor
and stairs ; on the bright suit of armor posted, halbert in hand,
upon the landing ; and on the dark wood-carvings, and framed
pictures that hung against the yellow panels of the wainscot. So
' loud was the beating of the rain through all the house that, in
Markheim's ears, it began to be distinguished into many different
sounds. Footsteps and sighs, the tread of regiments marching in
the distance, the chink of money in the counting, and the creak-
ing of doors held stealthily ajar, appeared to mingle with the
patter of the drops upon the cupola and the gushing of the water
in the pipes.
Stevenson: Markheim.
In the foUowing selections, note the images which
114 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
are suggested to your mind. Through what sense
impressions do the images arise ?
^1) The day is come when I again repose
Here, under this dark sycamore, and view
These plots of cottage-groandy these orchard-toftSy
Which at this season, with their unripe fruits.
Are clad in one green hue, and lose themselves
'Mid groves and copses. Once again I see
These hedge-rows, hardly hedge-rows, little lines
Of sportive wood run wild : these pastoral farms.
Green to the very door ; and wreaths of smoke
Sent upy in silence, from among the trees.
Wordswobth: Tintem Abbey.
(2) I wandered lonely as a cloud
That floats on high o'er vales and hillfl^
When all at once I saw a crowd,
A host, of golden daffodils,
Beside the lake, beneath the trees,
Fluttering and dancing in the breeze*
Continuous as the stars that slune
And twinkle on the milky way,
They stretched in never-ending line
Along the margin of the bay :
Ten thousand saw I at a glance
Tossing their heads in sprightly dance.
The waves beside them danced ; but they
Out-did the sparkling waves in glee.
WoBDSWORTH I Ths DaffodiU.
(3) When that hour came to me among the pines, I wakened
thirsty. My tin was standing by me half full of water. I emptied
DESCRIPTION 115
it at a draught ; and feeling broad awake after this internal cold
aspersion, sat upright to make a cigarette. The stars were dear,
colored, jewel-like but not frosty. A faint silvery vapor stood
for the Milky Way. All around me the black fir-points stood
upright and stock-still. By the whiteness of the pack-saddle I
could see Modestine walking round and round at the length of
her tether ; I could hear her steadily munching at the sward ;
but there was not another sound, save the indescribable quiet
talk of the runnel over the stones. I lay lazily smoking and
studying the color of the sky, as we call the void of space, from
where it showed a reddish gray behind the pines to where it
showed a glossy blue-black between the stars. • • •
A faint wind, more like a moving coldness than a stream of
air, passed down the glade from time to time ; so that even in
my great chamber the air was being renewed all night long.
Stevenson : Travels with a Donkey*
(4) Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight,
And all the air a solemn stillness holds,
Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight,
And drowsy tinklings luU the distant folds.
Gray : Elegy.
71. Observation in Description. It is evident that
if you are to give others a clear image or impres-
sion of something which you have experienced, you
must know definitely the details which go to make
up your picture. In other words, you must have
made accurate observations. Most of our impres-
sions are general ; we think we know exactly how a
person looks, until we attempt to describe him and
find that we are not sure of the color of his eyes and
hdir or the shape of his nose. In fact we know
U6 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
little about the details. Those objects or scenes
with which we are most familiar are frequently the
ones we can least easily describe. Look carefully
about your own schoolroom^ for instance, with a view
to describing it. What detafls do you discover that
you have never before consciously observed? Of
what details have you carried a mistaken idea?
Could you have given an accurate description? This
is generally our experience when called upon to de-
scribe. We must make special observations. Tou
should train yourself to keep your senses alert. Life
will mean more to youj your enjoyment of nature
and of your surroundings will be keener; and your
power of giving pleasure to others by sharing your
experiences will be greatly increased.
72. Order of Observations. The order in which
your observations were made in the case of the
schoolroom is the natural order. First is formed the
rather vague image, a general impression of size^
shape, color, and position. Gradually as observation
continues, the more obvious objects fix themselves,
then the more minute details are noted and placed,
and the image is complete.
73. Point of View. As in narration, so in descrip-
tion, the point of view is important. What you see,
depends upon your position — whether it is fixed or
moving, far or near. If the point of view is station-
ary, you must be careful to introduce only those de-
tails which may be seen from that point — what a
camera would picture placed in the same positiont
DESCRIPTION 117
Moreover, you must not change your position with-*
out making it known to the reader that you have
done so, else his image will become confused and
inaccurate. So, too, if the point of view is a moving
one, the reader must be informed of every change
in the shifting position. He must know that he is
approaching the object, that he has entered the
huilding, that he has rounded a curve, and hence is
viewing the scene from a different angle. Since the
point of view determines the picture, make sure
hefore hegiiming a description that you have se-
lected an advantageous position for an effective
view. Let no vagueness about your position or its
change confuse the reader or hearer.
Sometimes the point of view is not definitely
stated. It must then be implied in the description,
which should be worded in such a way that the
reader has no difficulty in placing the observer and
himself.
In the description of Edinburgh on page 179,
note the point of view and the effect of changing
it, which Stevenson humorously indicates.
In the following, note the point of view and the
order of observation:
(1) Roused thus by these earliest sounds of the city's waken-
ing life, I slid open my little Japanese paper window to look
out upon the morning over a soft green cloud of spring foliage
rising from the riyer-bounded garden below. Before me, tremu-
lously mirroring everything upon its farther side, glimmers the
broad, glassy mouth of the Ohashigawa, opening into the grand
118 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
Siin ji lake, which spreads oat broadly to the right in a dim gray
frame of peaks. Just opposite to me, across the stream, the blue-
pointed Japanese dwellings have their to ^ all closed ; they are still
shut ap like boxes, for it is not yet smirise, although it is day.
Bat oh, the charm of the vision, — those first ghostly love-
colors of a morning steeped in mist soft as sleep itself resolved
into a visible exhalation ! Long reaches of faintly-tinted vapor
doad the far lake verge, — long neboloos bands, such as yoa
may have seen in old Japanese pictare-books, and mast have
deemed only artistic whimsicalities unless you had previously
looked upon the real phenomena. All the bases of the mountains
are veiled by them, and they stretch athwart the loftier peaks
at different heights like immeasurable lengths of gauze (this
singular appearance the Japanese term " shelving "), so that the
lake appears incomparably larger than it really is, and not an
actual lake, but a beautiful spectral sea of the same tint as the
dawn-sky and mixing with it, while peak4ips rise like islands
from the brume, and visionary strips of hill-ranges figure as
league-long causeways stretching out of sight — an exquisite
chaos, ever changing aspect as the delicate fogs rise, slowly, very
slowly. As the sun's yellow rim comes into sight, fine thin lines
of warmer tone — spectral violets and opalines — shoot across
the flood, treetops take tender fire, and the unpainted facades of
high edifices across the water change their wood-color to vapory
gold through the delicious haze.
Lookin g sunward, up the long Ohashigawa, beyond the many-pil-
lared wooden bridge, one high-pooped junk, just hoisting sail, seems
to me the most fantastically beautiful craft I ever saw, a dream of
Orient seas, so idealized by vapor it is ; the ghost of a junk, bat
a ghost that catches the light as clouds do ; a shape of gold misty
seemingly semi-diaphanous, and suspended in pale blue light.
Lafcadio Heabn : Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan*
^ Shutters, serving both as shatters and doors.
DESCRIPTION 119
(2) A yard or two f artiher, we pass die hostelry of the Black
Eagle, and glancing as we pass through the square door of mar-
hie, deeply moulded, in the outer wall, we see the shadow of its
pergola of vines resting on an ancient wall, with a pointed
shield carved on its side ; and so presently emerge on the bridge
and Campo San Mois^, whence to the entrance into St. Mark's
Place, called the Bocca di Piazza (mouth of the square), the
Venetian character is nearly destroyed, first by the frightful
fa9ade of San Mois^, which we will pause at another time to
examine, and then by the modernizing of the shops as they neax
the piazza, and the mingling with the lower Venetian populace
of lounging groups of English and Austrians. We will push
fast through them into the shadow of the pillars at the end of
the ^' Bocca di Piazza," and then we forget them all ; for be-
tween those pillars there opens a great light, and, in the midst
of it as we advance slowly, the vast tower of St. Mark seems to
lift itself visibly forth from the level field of checkered stones :
and, on each side, the countless arches prolong themselves into
ranged symmetry, as if the rugged and irregular houses that
pressed together above us in the dark alley had been struck back
into sudden obedience and lovely order, and all their rude case-
ments and broken walls had been transformed into arches charged
with goodly sculpture, and fluted shafts of delicate stone.
Buskin: Stones of Venice.
(3) To begin, then, with the main outlines of the country : I
know not how to give the reader a distinct image of these more
readily, than by requesting him to place himself with me, in
imagination, upon some given point ; let it be the top of either of
the mountains, Great Gavel or Scawfell ; or, rather, let us suppose
our station to be a cloud hanging midway between those two
mountains, at not more than half a mile's distance from the sum-
mit of each, and not many yards above their highest elevation;
we shall then see # • .
Wobdswosth; Guide to the Lakes.
120 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
Exercise 21
1. Bring to class two descriptions you have found illus-
trating, the one a fixed point of view, the other a moving
point of view.
2. (a) From the two descriptions called for in Ex. 1,
make a list of all the words or expressions which indicate
point of view.
(&) From the descriptions quoted in this chapter, add
other expressions to your list.
8. From a window in your school building which offers
an extensive view, make observations of the scene before
you. Becord the details in the order in which you observe
them. Preserve this list of details for future work.
4. Find ten selections from your reading containing
mention of definite points of view.
6. Taking a position at a distance from some building,
make a note of your observations. Approach the building
and add to your list new details that come to your notice.
6. From memory, record what details you would include
in a description of the post-office building of your city.
Then make actual observations from the point of view
you selected for the above. Did you include any points
not visible from that point of view ? Revise your list of
details.
74. Ftmdamental Image. The first general im-
pression of an object gained at a glance is called the
fundamental image. As the term fundamental im-
plies, this image forms the basis of the whole mental
picture. You noted, in considering the order of ob-
servation, that you observe an object or scene first
as a whole, — that is, form a fundamental image, —
then note details. Since the purpose of description
DESCBIFnON 121
18 to make others see what we have seen or imagined,
we should follow this same order in describing it.
That is^ first present the fundamental image^ gi^i^g
a general impression of size, color, position, or strik-
ingly peculiar characteristics; then complete the im-
age by adding details. The general impression first
gained should be in no wise contradicted by any later
details; it should be merely augmented and made
more definite. Should a later detail cause the reader
to readjust his first general impression, the writer has
been unskilful in drawing his general outlines.
Note in the following selections how the funda-
mental image is presented :
(1) It is a very fine old place, of red brick, softened by a pale
powdery lichen, which has dispersed itself with a happy irregu*
larity, so as to bring the red brick into terms of friendly com-
panionship with the limestone ornaments surrounding the three
gables, the windows, and the door-plate. But the windows are
patched with wooden panes, and the door, I think, is like the
gate — it is never opened : how it would groan and grate against
the stone floor if it were ! For it is a solid, heavy, handsome
door, and must once have been in the habit of shutting with a
sonorous bang behind a liveried lackey.
George Eliot: AdamBede.
Washington Irving in The Alhamhra prefaces a
long description with this opening sentence, which
gives the reader the setting for all the wealth of
detail which follows :
(2) We now found ourselves in a deep, narrow ravine, filled
with beautiful groves^ with a steep avenue and various footpaths
122 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
winding through it, bordered with stone seatSi and ornamented
with fountains.
In the above quotation you note also that the
opening sentence contains the point of view of the
description as well as the fundamental image.
(3) The companion of the church dignitary was a man past
forty, thin, strong, tall and muscular ; an athletic figure, in which
long fatigue and constant exercise seemed to have left none of
the softer part of the human form, having reduced the whole to
brawn, bones, and sinews. — Scott : Ivanhoe.
(4) The trader enters at the gate, and sees before him an
extensive square area, surrounded by high palisades. Numerous
houses, barracks, and other buildings form a smaller square
within, and in the vacant space which they enclose appear the
red uniforms of British soldiers, the gray coats of Canadians,
and the gaudy Indian blankets, mingled in picturesque confu-
sion. — Pabkman : T?ie Conspiracy ofFontidc.^
75. Selection of Details; Unity. Unity in descrip-
tion demands that the details selected for presenta-
tion be such as will give a single clear-cut image or
such as will produce a single definite impression.
Any superfluous details only tend to confuse the
mental image and weary the reader ; any essential
ones omitted leave the image incomplete. Thus
unity in description, as in narration, governs the
selection of material and is aided by keeping to a
definite point of view.
76. Point of Interest. The selection of details will
be largely determined by the point of interest in the
1 Copyright, 1870, by Francis Parkman; 1897-1898, by Littie,
Brown and Co.
DESCRIPTION 123
description. In every bit of description, whether of
place, scene, or person, there should be one domi-
nant impression — of place, some particular, charac-
terizing feature; of scene, some definite point of
appeal or interest ; of a person, some individualizing
trait or distinguishing personality. What this point
of interest is will depend upon the purpose of the
description and the character of the thing described,
as well as upon the author's personality.
In the following selections, what impression does
the writer seek to convey ? Show that the details
selected all contribute toward making this impres-
sion. Are there any that mar the unity ?
(1) That spring, the mohwa tree, that Baloo was so fond of^
never flowered. The greeny, cream-colored, waxy blossoms were
heat-killed before they were born, and only a few bad-smelling
petals came down where he stood on his hind legs and shook
the tree. Then inch by inch, the untempered heat crept into the
heart of the Jangle, turning it yellow brown and at last black.
The green growths in the sides of the ravines burned up to
broken wires and curled films of dead stuff; the hidden pools
sank down and caked over, keeping the least footmark on their
edges as if it had been cast in iron ; the juicy-stemmed creepers
fell away from the trees they clung to and died at their feet ;
the bamboo withered, clanking when the hot winds blew, and
the moss peeled off the rocks deep in the jungle, till they were
as bare and as hot as the quivering blue boulders in the bed of
the stream.
Kipling : Jungle Book^ n.
(2) The island is a paradise of silence for those to whom
silence is a delight. One wanders about in the vineyards without
124 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
a sound save the call of the vme-dressers ; one lies on the difi
and hears a thoasand feet helow the dreamy wash of the sea.
There is hardly the cry of a hird to hreak the spell ; even the
girls who meet one with a »mile on the hillside smile quietly and
gravely in the Southern fasmon as they pass hy. It is the stillest
place that the sun shines on ; hut with all its stillness it is far
from being a home of boredom.
John Bichakd Gsebn: Stray Studies.
(3) During the whole of a dull, dark, and soundless day in
the autumn of the year, when the clouds hung oppressively low
in the heavens, I had been passing alone, on horseback, through
a singularly dreary tract of country ; and at length found myself
as the shades of evening drew on, within view of the melancholy
House of Usher. I know not how it was, but, with the first
glimpse of the building, a sense of insufferable gloom pervaded
my spirit. I say insufferable ; for the feeling was unrelieved by
any of that half-pleasurable, because poetic, sentiment with which
the mind usually receives even the sternest natural images of the
desolate or terrible. I looked upon the scene before me — upon
the mere house, and the simple landscape features of the do-
main, upon the bleak walls, upon the vacant eye-like windows,
upon a few rank sedges, and upon a few white trunks of de-
cayed trees — with an utter depression of soul which I can
compare to no earthly sensation more properly than to the after-
dream of the reveller upon opium : the bitter lapse into every-
day life, the hideous dropping off of the veil. ... I reined
my horse to the precipitous brink of a black and lurid tarn that
lay in unruffled lustre by the dwelling, and gazed down — but
with a shudder even more thrilling than before — upon the
remodelled and inverted images of the gray sedge, and the
ghastly tree-stemS; and the vacant and eye-like windows.
Fob: The Fall of the Mouse of Usher.
DESCRIPTION 126
(4) Methinks I see him before me now, as he appeared then,
and as he continaed with scarcely any perceptible alteration to
me, daring the twenty years of intimacy which followed, and
were closed by his death. A light frame, so fragile that it
seemed as if a breath woold overthrow it, clad in clerk-like
black, was sormomited by a head of form and expression the
most noble and sweet His black hair corled crisply about an
expanded forehead ; his eyes, softly brown, twinkled with vary-
ing expression, thoagh the prevalent feeling was sad ; and the
nose slightly curved, and delicately carved at the nostril, with the
lower outline of the face regularly oval, completed a head which
was finely placed on the shoulders, and gave importance and
even dignity to a diminutive and shadowy stem. Who shall de-
scribe his countenance, catch its quivering sweetness, and &^ it
for ever in words ? There are none, alas, to answer the vain de-
sire of friendship. Deep thought, striving with humor ; the lines
of suffering wreathed into cordial mirth ; and a smile of painful
sweetness, present an image to the mind which it can as little
describe as lose.
Talfoubd: Charles Lamb, English Men of Letters Series.
Exercise 22
1. In the selections quoted on pages 114-115 point
out the special point of interest or single impression in
each. Is there a fundamental image in each description?
Show whether or not the selection of details maintains
unity.
2. What is the impression which Lafcadio Heam seeks
to convey in the description quoted on page 117 ? Make
a list of all the words and expressions that produce this
impression.
8. Find five descriptions that convey definite impres*
aions, one being a description of a person. In each be pre-
126 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
pared to point out the fundamental image, and the order
in which the details are added.
4. Bring to class a description that seems to you to pre-
sent too many details to give a clear image. What details
would you omit?
5. Make a list of five subjects which suggest themselves
to you for description. For each of these subjects write a
single sentence giving the fundamental image or general
impression.
6. Write a single sentence to describe in a general way
each of the following topics ; what would be the particular
impression you would give in each case ?
(a) An old attic
(b) The mill pond.
(c) The football field just before the game begins.
(d) The wharf.
7. Choosing one of the pictures in your school building,
decide what the central point of interest is. Write a de-
scription of the picture.
8. Give orally in a sentence or two the fundamental
image of some building with which your classmates are
familiar. If they are unable to recognize the building, add
significant details to your description until the building
is identified.
9. Write a descriptive paragraph, using one of the
following subjects :
(a) A shop.
(b) A canal boat
(c) A camp located on a lake.
(d) Some building which has impressed yon as pecaliar in
structure.
{e) A quarry.
DESCRIPTION 127
10. Describe a library or dining-room, lighted and
occupied, as seen from the street.
11. Your dog has been stolen. Describe him carefully
for the police officer.
12. Select from your reading the description which
presents to you the most vivid picture.
13. Describe a busy street scene : first, from a window
overlooking the street ; second, as you pass down the street
with a crowd.
14. Take some favorite walk, and describe what you see
on your way.
15. Describe orally your railroad station as you would
to a stranger, giving him only such details as would enable
him to recognize the building.
77. Grouping of Details; Coherence. Once the
details necessary to fulfill the purpose of the author
have been selected, the next step in description is
their arrangement. Coherence demands that the
details be so arranged that the reader may readily
picture them, or may experience exactly that which
the writer purposes he should. Coherence is secured
by grouping the details in the order in which they
are observed ; that is, according to their importance
or obviousness. Read again the description by Hearn
on page 117. First he gives the fundamental image,
" Morning over a soft green cloud of spring foliage
rising from the river-bounded garden below." He
then mentions the river, the lake^ the mountain peaks^
and the houses, in the order in which they came to
his attention. He next describes the charm of the
vision: ^Hhe ghostly love-colors," the clouds and
128 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
their effect on the peaks and lake, the scene '^ chang-
ing aspect as the delicate fogs rise/' the appear-
ance of the sun and the consequent color effects,
the up-river view with its wooden bridge and the
*' ghost of a junk " catching the light of the golden
mist. The description is easily followed because of
the natural, orderly arrangement of details.
Details may be grouped, also, according to their
space relation. Observe the following description
from A Tale of Two Cities :
A broad ray of light fell into the garret, and showed the
workman with an unfinished shoe upon his lap, pausing in his
labor. His few common tools and various scraps of leather were
at his feet and on his bench. He had a white beard raggedly
cut, but not very long, a hollow face, and exceedingly bright
eyes. The hollowness and thinness of his face would have caused
ihem to look large, under his yet dark eyebrows and his con-
fused white hair, though they had been really otherwise ; but
they were naturally large and looked unnaturally so. His yellow
rags of shirt lay open at the throat, and showed his body to be
withered and worn. He, and his old canvas frock, his loose
stockings, and all his poor tatters of clothes, had in a long seclu-
sion from direct light and air, faded down to such a dull uni-
formity of parchment-yellow, that it would have been hard to
say which was which.
Dickens begins his description with the sur-
roundings, but quickly passes to the man, giving first
the details of his face emphasizing the dominant
feature, then his clothing in regular order begin-
ning with the clothing of the upper part of his body,
DESCRIPTION 129
tiien his frock and stockings. All the details of the
features are put together ; all the details of clothing
are grouped. Such an orderly arrangement gives
coherence.
78. Time in Description. A description is made
more vivid by putting it at a particular season and
at a special time of day. The impression of the sea-
shore in August is quite different from the impres-
sion of the same rock-bound or sandy coast in De-
cember. The isolated mountain camp in the spring
sunshine charms one, but in a late fall downpour its
effect is anything but charming. Our impressions
are influenced by the season and by the weather ;
therefore descriptions to be vivid and accurate should
make clear the time. In the selections thus far given
in this chapter, point out the allusions to time.
What is the effect of fixing the time in the fol-
lowing ?
(1) Night is a dead monotonous period under a roof ; but in
the open world it passes lightly, with its stars and dews and
perf umesy and the hours are marked by changes in the face of
Nature.
Stevenson : Travels with a Donkey.
(2) It was a perfect white night, as they call it. All green
things seemed to have made a month's growth since morning.
Kipling : The Jungle Book.
(3) Then its [April's] odors ! I am thrilled by its fresh and
indescribable odors — the perfume of the bursting sod, of the
quickened roots and rootlets, of the mould under the leaves, of
the fresh furrows.
BuBBOUGHS : Birds and Poets.
130 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
(4) Plenty of life's there! [farmyard] though this is Hm
drowsiest time of the year, just before hay-harvest ; and it is the
drowsiest time of the day too, for it is dose npon three by
the sun. . • • But there is always a stronger sense of life when
the sun is brilliant after rain.
Eliot: Adam Bede.
(5) The hour was midnight and I had suddenly awakened.
It was a calm, moonlight night in early May.
79. Kinds of Description. Description may be
classified according to the purpose it serves as ex-
act, suggestive, or impressionistic. If its purpose is
identification, the details may be exact and exhaus-
tive, as is the case in scientific descriptions, which
appeal to the understanding rather than to the im-
agination and are therefore expository ; or the de-
tails may be merely distinctive so that the particular
object can be differentiated from all other objects of
its kind through depicting its significant features.
This is the type of description used in advertising,
in describing lost and found articles, and for identi-
fication of people, houses, landscapes. The image
in the reader's mind may be quite different from the
author's in all respects except the distinctive charac-
teristics. Thus description for identification may be
either exact and exhaustive, or merely suggestive.
Artistic description represents quite a different
type, for its purpose is to make the reader experi-
ence feelings similar to those of the author, or
share the author's impressions and moods. The
writer selects only those details which emphasize
DESCRIPTION 131
one characteristic of the object or which enhance the
impression he wishes to give. It is^ therefore^ im-
pressionistic. The details may be many or f ew^ but
in impressionistic description they must all contrib-
ute to the special effect. Note again the descriptions
given on pages 123-125.
8o. Descriptions of Persons; Characterizations.
Descriptions of persons are generally at the same
time characterizations. To be told what a person
looks like is to form simultaneously an idea of his
character. Penetrating eyes, haughty mien, over-
hanging brows, deep blue eyes which looked straight
at you, drooping mouth, firm lips, square-set chin^
nobility of look, small restless shifting eyes, fur-
rowed brow, firm step, dancing curls, accusing scowl,
heavy features, resolute expression, — all these are
expressions which call up vivid pictures and at the
same time suggest much about the character of the
person. Conversely, descriptive words may be en-
tirely lacking and only character depicted. The
reader nevertheless forms a mental picture that suits
the character. Thus the process is twofold, and de-
scription and characterization each aids the other and
makes it more interesting. Reread the descriptions
of persons given in this chapter. What characteristics
are shown through descriptive expressions? What
pictures are suggested through characterization ?
Describing persons is not easy, for the differences
between persons are subtle. Aim to give first a clear,
vivid f ondamental image similar to the geueral im-
132 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
piession one would receive of the person at first
glance. Add a few telling, carefolly selected details
that indicate marked features and characteristics.
Do not weaiy your audience with minor details
which will only be confusing.
Study the following descriptions of persons :
(1) He was a man of large mould. A great bod7 and a greak
brain. He seemed to be made to last one hondred years. Since
Socrates, there has seldom been a head so massivelj large, save
the stormy featores of Michelangelo. Since Charlemagne, I
think there has not been sach a grand figure in all Christen-
dom.
A large man, decorous in dress, dignified in deportment, he
walked as if he felt himself a king. The coal-heavers and porters
of London looked on him as one of the great forces of the globe.
They recognized a native king. Li the Senate of the United
States he looked an emperor in that coonciL Even the majestic
Calhoun seemed common compared with him. Clay looked vul-
gar and Van Boren but a fox.
What a month he had ! It was a lion's month, yet there was
a sweet grandeur in the smile, and a woman's softness when he
would. What a brow it was ! What eyes ! Like charcoal fires
in the bottom of a deep, dark well. His face was rugged with
volcanic fires — great passions and great thoughts.
<< The front of Jove himself ;
An eye like Mars, to threaten and command."
Theodobe Pabkeb : Sermon an Webster.
(2) To me it is a most touching face ; perhaps of all faces
that I know, the most so. Lonely there, painted as on vacancy,
with the simple laurel wound round it, the deathless sorrow and
pain, the known victory which is also deathless ; — significant
of the whole history of Dante. I think it is the moumfulest face
DESCRIPTION 133
that ever was painted from reality ; an altogether tragic, heart-
affecting face. There is in it, as foandatioD of it, the softness,
tenderness, gentle affection as of a child ; but all this is as if
congealed into sharp contradiction, into abnegation, isolation,
prond hopeless pain. A soft, ethereal soul looking out so stem,
implacable, grim-trenchant, as from imprisonment of thick-
ribbed ice ! Withal it is a silent pain too, a silent scornful one ;
the lip is curled in a kind of godlike disdain of the thing that is
eating out his heart, — as if it were withal a mean insignificant
thing, as if he whom it had power to torture and strangle were
greater than it. The face of one wholly in protest and life-long
unsurrendering battle, against the world. Affection all converted
into indignation : an implacable indignation ; slow, equable,
silent, like that of a god ! The eye, too, it looks out in a kind of
surprise, a kind of inquiry, why the world was of such a sort ?
This is Dante : so he looks, this " voice of silent centuries," and
sings us *^ his mystic unfathomable song."
Caslylb : Heroes and Hero- Worship, " The Hero as Poet."
8i. Expression in Description. To be really effec-
tive, a description must do more than merely set forth
an image. It must have life and individuality, gained
through picturesque words, unusual turns of phrase,
figurative language, and pleasing effects in arrange-
ment, all of which add interest and distinction.
Study the vocabulary of description — words de-
scriptive of sound, motion, color, odor, taste, etc. ;
words descriptive of persons, scenes, buildings, of
emotions such as joy, sorrow, terror, awe. Remem-
ber that the specific word is far more effective than
the general (see § 133, p. 248), and that a few well-
chosen verbs, adjectives, and adverbs can do more
1S4 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
than pages of description. Compare, for instance, the
effectiveness of the abstract sounded with the con-
crete words: clanged^ whirred^ boomedy roared,
snarledy rattled, rasped, tinkled, babbled, chimed,
reverberated, trilled, warbled, rumbled, clapped,
mooed ; or compare flowers with violets, roses,
pansies, columbine, daisies, asters. Seek for the
word, not a word; enlarge your vocabulary so that
the same word is not called upon to describe a sun-
set, a flower, a person, a landscape, and a Niagara.
Certain other expressions which locate details and
afford transitions aid in effectiveness, in that they
keep the description from becoming a mere cata-
logue. Such expressions as the following are useful :
In the foreground, in the background, adjoining, near which^
beside which, beyond which, overhanging, in the distance, at the
foot of which, below, above, overtopping, across, neighboring^
near by, at the right, on one side, in the center, toward the
front, directly opposite, nearer, at intervals.
82. Comparison and Contrast. Comparisons and
contrasts are of great help in description, both in
rendering it more effective and interesting, and in
assisting the reader to form an image quickly. If the
comparison is striking, it immediately catches the
attention and fixes the image. A long description
would be required to set forth what is accomplished
in the following brief forms :
(1) The Ducal Palace is arranged in the form of a hollow
square, of which one side faces the Piazzetta, and another the
quay *. the third is on the dark canal • • # Buskin.
DESCRIPTION 136
(2) The undulation of the wide sleeves of their pretty speckled
robes, as they run, looks precisely like a fluttering of extraordi-
nary butterflies. Heasn.
(3) I could look at the ship as at a separate yessel, and there
rose up from the water, supported only by the small black hull,
a pyramid of canvas spreading out far beyond the hull, and
towering up almosti as it seemed in the indistinct night air, to
the clouds* Dana.
(4) The Bay of Monterey has been compared by no less a
person than General Sherman to a bent Ashing hook.
Stevbnsok.
(6) Through the black Tartar tents he passed which stood
Clustering like beehives. Abnold.
Notice the effect of comparison in the following stanzas
from Shelley's ode " To a Skylark " :
(6) Higher still and higher
From the earth thou springest.
Like a cloud of fire ;
The blue deep thou wingest.
And singing still dost soar, and soaring over singest.
In the golden lightning
Of the sunken sun,
O'er which clouds are brightening.
Thou dost float and run ;
like an unbodied joy whose race is just b^^nn.
The pale purple even
Melts around thy flight;
like a star of heaven
In the broad daylight
Thou art unseen, but yet I hear thy shrill delight,
136 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
Keen as are the arrowa
Of that silver sphere.
Whose intense himp narrows
In the white dawn dear
Until we hardlj see, we feel that it is tli6i«t
Exercise 23
1. Point ont the special merits of the following:
(1) Bring the rathe primrose that forsaken dies.
The tufted crow-toe, and pale jessamine,
The white pink, and the pansy freaked with jet^
The glowing violet,
The musk-rose, and the well-attired woodhine,
With cowslips wan that hang the pensive head.
And every flower that sad embroidery wears :
Bid amaranthus all his beauty shed,
And daffadillies fill their cups with tears.
To strew the laureate hearse where Lycid lies.
Milton: LyddoM*
(2) ... Ah, bitter chill it was!
The owl, for all his feathers, was arcold ;
The hare limp'd trembling through the frozen grass,
And silent was the flock in woolly fold :
Numb were the Beadsman's fingers, while he told
His rosary, and while his frosted breath,
Like pious incense from a censer old,
Seem'd taking flight for heaven without a death.
Keats : The Eve of St. Agnes.
(3) The stars are forth, the moon above the tops
Of the snow-shining mountains. — Beautiful !
• . . upon such a night
DESCRIPTION 137
I stood within the Coliseum's wall,
Midst the chief relics of ahnight j Rome ;
The trees which grew along the hroken archet
Waved dark in the hlue midnight, and the stars
Shone through the rents of rain ; from afar
The watch-dog bay'd beyond the Tiber : and,
liore near, from out the CsBsars' palace came
The owl's long cry, and, interruptedly.
Of distant sentinels the fitful song
Began and died upon the gentle wind.
Bybon : The Coliseum by Moonlight.
(4) Mrs. Browning met us at the door of the drawing-room,
and gpreeted us most kindly, — a pale, small person, scarcely
embodied at all ; at any rate, only substantial enough to pat
forth her slender fingers to be grasped, and to speak with a shriU,
yet sweet, tenuity of voice. Really, I do not see how Mr. Brown-
ing can suppose that he has an earthly wife any more than an
earthly child ; both are of the elfin race, and will flit away from
him some day when he least thinks of it She is a good and kind
fairy, however, and sweetly disposed toward the human race,
although only remotely akin to it. It is wonderful to see how
small she is, how pale her cheek, how bright and dark her eyes.
There is not such another figure in the world ; and her black
ringlets cluster down into her neck, and make her face look the
whiter by their sable profusion. I could not form any judgment
about her age ; it may range anywhere within the limits of
human life or elfin life. When I met her in London at Lord
Houghton's breakfast-table, she did not impress me so singu-
larly ; for the morning light is more prosaic than the dim illumi-
nation of their great tapestried drawing-room; and, besides,
sitting next to her, she did not have occasion to raise her voice
in speaking, and I was not sensible what a slender voice she
138 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
bas. It is marveloas to me how so extraordinary, so acute, so
sensitive a creature can impress us, as she does, with the cer-
tainty of her benevolence. It seems to me there were a million
chances to one that she would have been a miracle of acidity
and bitterness.
Hawthobne : FrenGh and Italian Note Books,
2. (a) Describe orally in detail the picture which the
following might suggest to you :
(1) . . . the whining school-boy with his satchel
And shining morning face.
(2) This castle hath a pleasant seat ; the air
Nimbly and sweetly reconunends itself
Unto our gentler senses . . .
(6) Does your description convey a more vivid image
than the above ?
What kind of description is each of the quotations?
8. Make a list of all the words you can think of that
would be useful in describing:
(a) The features, manner, and voice of a person.
(h) A landscape.
(c) A sunrise and sunset.
(d) The exterior of buildings.
{e) The ocean.
Add new words to these lists as yon meet them in your
reading.
4. Bring to class from your reading three descriptions
of persons, which seem to you particularly good. Point
out their special merits.
6. Describe your school building so that a stranger may
recognize it when he sees it.
6. Describe your school building to a student who is
about to begin his work there.
DESCRIPTION 139
7. Write a description of some summer resort with
which yoa are familiar :
(a) On a bright July week-day afternoon.
(b) On a late September Sunday.
8. Define your first impression of one of the follow-
ing:
(a) Some famous personage.
(b) An odd character in your town.
(e) Some bit of natural sceneiy famous for its beauty.
(d) An aeroplane in motion.
{e) Tour favorite character in history ; in fiction.
9. Write a description, the aim of which is to convey an
impression of one of the following : (a) awe ; (6) dejec-
tion; (c) confusion; (rf) fear; (e) repose; (/) beauty
in nature ; (^) cheerfulness in a person.
10. Write a description of some person you know well,
trying to bring out character. Choose a unique character
if possible.
11. For each of the following write a sentence convey-
ing the general impression and complete the description
of one or more :
(a) A hot midsummer's day.
(b) A cold, blustery winter day.
(c) A mild spring day.
(d) A crisp, still fall day.
(e) A city street to a country boy or girl : (1) the shopping
district just before Christmas ; (2) the principal prom-
enade on a summer evening.
12. Write for the bulletin board a description of some
lost article — an umbrella, a hat, or some article you
value for its associations. Be sure your description wiP
insure identification.
140 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
18. Describe a place or scene, the details of which con-
Tey an impression of life and activity.
14. Select one line of the following qaotation and write
the description it suggests :
There is a pleasure in the pathless woods,
There is a rapture on the lonely shore,
There is society, where none intrudes,
By the deep Sea, and music in its roar.
15. (a) Describe the coming in, the landing, and the
departure of a boat — an excursion boat, a ferry boat, or
an ocean liner.
(6) Describe an approaching vehicle — a carriage, an
automobile.
16. Write a description contrasting two people of to-
tally different characteristics. Suggested types :
(a) One slow and deliberate ; the other quick of movement,
excitable.
(b) One visionary, unpractical, idealistic ; the other business-
like, prosaic, and practical.
(e) A lover of nature and books ; a person absorbed in the
routine of work.
17. Describe the scene about your own home :
(a) During a snowstorm.
(b) On a May morning.
(c) On a windy October afternoon just before sunset.
18. Write a description of a bird, plant, tree, or animal,
with special aim toward accuracy of detail.
19. Describe your own town from a distant point of
view and from a point near by.
20. Write a descriptive paragraph on each of the fol-
lowing topics, emphasizing the impression indicated by the
DESCRIPTION 141
parenthesis. Bring in the effects of contrast and compari-
son wherever possible.
(a) A windless night (sonnd).
(b) An antamn day (color).
(c) A railroad trip (discomfort, confusion).
(d) A thnnderstorra (sound, color, motion).
(e) A farmer (shrewdness, ruggedness).
(/) A morning after a snowstorm (wonder, admiration).
(g) The seashore (sound, color effects).
21. Describe the picture suggested to you by the first
scene of Shakespeare's Macbeth, What impression does
the scene give ? Choose an effective point of view.
22. Write a short description of one or more of the
following :
(a) The interior of a railroad station just before a train is
due to arrive and depart.
(b) A city street in which a fire has just broken out.
(c) The arrival of a train of excursionists at their destinar
lion.
(d) A race.
(a) A game (football, baseball, basketball, hockey).
23. Describe the picture which you think would be
suitable to illustrate one of the following :
(a) The landing of Columbus.
(b) Sir William Johnson and the Indians forming a cow^
pact.
(c) Departure of the Pilgrims from Holland.
(d) First Continental Congress.
(e) Pioneers to the West.
(/) New York City in colonial days.
24. (a) Describe a living room or study lighted and
occupied, as seen from the street on a winter's night.
U2 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
(li) Describe the same room from the point of Tiew of
one of the oocnpants.
25. Describe a country road, choosing some definite
time. Try to convey the general impression a person would
get, were he to walk along this road.
26. Write a descriptive paragraph of the audience at
some entertainment you have recently attended.
27. Visit some industrial plant in your vicinity. Tell
the class what your impressions of the place were.
28. Describe the images which the following suggest to
you:
(a) The flattering of canvas.
(b) Sharp-smelling wood smoke.
(c) Salt sea air.
(d) The BondiaL
(e) Shallow paddles.
(/) Shimmering water.
(g) Chinked with moss.
(k) Spicy fragrance of the firs,
(t) /^ Joyfol chant of morning song/'
(j) The city's roar.
(k) Bright crimson of autumn.
(I) Holly and mistletoe.
(m) Broad stream,
(n) Towering trees.
(o) Floating leaves and silvery blossoms.
(p) Tasselling corn rustling its broad leaves.
(q) The san-steeped air with a perfume that calb all the
wild bees.
(r) Parched fields and dwindling streams.
(s) Heap of bright red leaves.
(t) Rich brown earth.
(u) Nipping winds and early frosts.
THE SONG OF THE LARK
From the Painting in the Chicago Art Institutpi
Breton
DESCRIPTION 143
(v) The smell of spring was in the air.
(w) Foaming and thundering on the steep heach.
29. Write a description of the most vivid picture you
Have in mind from any of the poems, dramas, or novels
that you have read in your high school course.
30. Select some good painting containing figures. Try
to determine the character of the persons ; then write a
description of the picture.
31. Write a description of one or more of the following :
(a) A skating scene.
(b) The old garret ; on a rainy day, on a clear day.
(c) An historical landmark.
(d) A newsboy.
(a) Your favorite nook.
(/) The homeliest man you ever saw.
(g) A deserted street.
(A) Your neighbor's garden.
(%) The antique furniture shop.
(J) Your favorite house or street.
(k) A queer vehicle.
(Q A person with most pleasing manners and voice.
(m) A gentleman of the old schooL
(n) A quaint old lady.
(o) Your favorite picture.
{p) An old bridge ; in clear weather, in a fog.
(q) An old-fashioned equipage.
(r) The haunted house.
(s) An old garret
{t) The sounds of the woods on a July morning.
32. Describe the scene of which you listed details in
Exercise 21, Ex. 3 (p. 120).
33. Write a description of the glimpses you get from
the window of a moving train.
144 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
84. Describe briefly :
(a) The sound of an approaching automobile.
(b) The sound of distant surf.
(c) The sound of a brook running over pebbles.
(d) The sound of the wind among different kinds of trees, in
June, in October.
85. Describe one of the following scenes, to show the
character of the occupant or family. Let the reader draw
the characteristics from the details g^ven.
(a) A boy's den.
(6) A library.
(e) The hatrack.
{d) Surroundings of a house.
(e) Pallor furnishings in some house with which you are
familiar.
(/) A workshop.
36. (a) Find two or more descriptions of voices.
(5) Write a description of the voices of two people
whom you know well.
87. Do you recognize any of your friends by his walk,
or step ? Describe the walk, or the sound of the step.
38. Examine the pictures facing pages 142 and 319.
Try to determine from the pictures the character of the
persons. Write the descriptions.
39. Study two of the faces in the picture facing page
109 ; then write a description which will indicate character.
40. Describe for a city boy one of the following :
(a) A country store in the evening.
{b) A village character.
(c) The arrival of the mail.
(d) The most prominent man of the countiy town.
(e) The district schooL
CHAPTER VI
EXPOSITION
83. Exposition; Definition and Field. Exposition
is that form of discourse which aims to make an
idea clear to the understanding, and is, without
doubt, the most widely used of all the forms of dis-
course. Textbooks, sermons, essays, and editorials,
all make use of this form of discourse ; answers to
the questions hx)w and why are expository ; expla-
nations, interpretations, definitions make ideas clear
and hence are forms of exposition. People of all
walks in life must use it in great questions and in
the little every-day affairs. Therefore, it behooves
everybody to understand how to use exposition most
effectively, how to save time and effort through di-
rectness and clearness.
84. Exposition and Description. Description in
its broadest sense includes exposition. When a de-
scription goes into minute detail, purposing, not to
picture the object so that another imagines how it
looks, but rather to make clear its parts and their
relations so that the reader may understand its con-
struction and use, the discourse is classified as ex-
position. It is evident that the distinction in this
case is one of purpose only, the description aiming to
picture; the exposition to explain. The expression
146 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
The small dark red book with the limp leather covers and g^t*
edged pages
may be intended to present the appearance of the
book so that an image may be formed, or it may be
used restrietively to designate (to make clear) which
book is under discussion. In the first case the ex-
pression is descriptive^ in the second it is expository
in aim.
Another distinction between exposition and de-
scription is that exposition deals in general with a
class of objects, description with particular objects.
A description would have to deal, for example, with
a particular picture of Corot's, while an exposition
on such a subject as ^^ Corot's paintings " would be
a general description including all the characteris-
tics common to Corot's paintings as a class. Its
purpose would be, not to make the reader see^ but,
rather, to make him comprehend. Thus exposition
may be generalized description.
In the same way, also, exposition may be gen-
eralized narration. In generalized narration, events
are set forth, not as they actually occurred in any
particular case, but as they might have happened
to any person under certain given conditions. Gen-
eralized narration is useful in explaining processes
of manufacture, games, and the like.
To accomplish its purpose, exposition makes fre-
quent use of narration, description, and argument,
just as those forms of discourse employ exposition.
£ach, however, when thus instrumental in the de-
EXPOSITION 147
Telopment of some other form of discourse, main-
tains its own identity and classification.
85. Clearness in Exposition. Since the o£Gice of
exposition is to make clear, it is evident that the
principles governing clearness must be rigidly ob-
served. The first step in securing clearness is for the
writer himself to have a perfect understanding of the
subject he is to explain. If his ideas are confused
and in disorder, it is evident that he can give his
reader only confused ideas and his explanation will
be ineffectual. Often we think we understand until
we endeavor to make clear our ideas to another ;
then we find that our understanding fails in certain
essential particulars, or that our ideas are in such a
disorganized state that it is impossible to present
them in any intelligible order. In the recitations
made in your classes, observe expositions which fail
in their purpose because pupils have not made a
careful study of a subject before attempting to ex-
plain it to another.
86. Selection of Details; Unity. The second step
in making a thing clear to another is to select with
care the facts to be presented. The principle of
unity demands that details not directly to the point
shall be excluded, since they in no way aid clear-
ness. Rather, they confuse the reader, diverting his
mind from the line of thought necessary to under-
standing. Unity demands also that all essentials be
set forth. The selection of details will depend some-
what on the person for whom the explanation is given,
148 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
whether it is a child to whom only the simplest de-
tails or processes would be intelligible, or a grown
person — one who has no knowledge of the subject
or one who already has some understanding of it.
87. Arrangement of Details; Coherence, Not
only must the writer, in making clear his subject,
select the details carefully, but he must also arrange
them so that the thought may be most easily compre-
hended. Coherence demands that the details be so ar-
ranged that the mind may pass easily from one point
to the next and grasp the relation between them.
The subject itself will usually suggest a well-defined
arrangement. Follow the order of time and place
whenever it is possible. Bring together into groups
those topics which are closely related and present
them in the most logical order. Finally, arrange the
groups so that they too are closely related, forming
a series of steps, and so that there is the proper em-
phasis on the most important points.
88. Outline in Exposition. An outline in exposi-
tory writing is a most important factor because it
presents the details and their arrangement in such
concrete form that one can see clearly whether
the points have been chosen wisely and arranged
logically and coherently. Morever, the outline will
show whether or not your knowledge of the subject
is complete. In making an outline, remember that
every expositioi must have an introduction, a body,
and a conclusion. The introduction, in general, con-
tains a statement^ the nature of the subject or
EXPOSITION 149
gives a definition of the subject. The body presents
the facts and details necessary to the exposition,
and constitutes by far the greater part of the expo-
sition. The conclusion forcefully summarizes the
matter presented in the body and contains the con-
cluding statement toward which all the points in the
explanation have been leading, and it also makes
such application as the author desires.
In writing an exposition, after you have added
to your information by reading and have taken notes
of important points, you should proceed with your
outline. In so doing, first jot down all the topics
"which you think should go into your exposition. Add
to these after consulting your notes and references*
Kext, from these select the main topics and arrange
them in some logical order, which will be suggested
to you by the nature of the subject and the conse-
quent nature of your material. These main topics
-will mark the natural divisions of the exposition.
After you have arranged the order of the main
topics, the next step is to group under each the de-
tails constituting the sub-topics, being careful that
all points are closely related to the topic under which
they are placed, and that the subjects within each
group are arranged in the order most easily followed.
Test each topic, in other words, for unity and co-
herence.
Study the two outlines given below. Do they
seem to you to cover the subject to be explained?
Are the divisions natural and helpful? Can you in
150 HIGH SmOOL ENGLISH
any way improve the selection or arrangement of
details?
LuMBEBma IN Nbw Hamfshirb
I. Introduction.
A. Lumbering season.
B. The party.
1. Number.
2. Its main diyisions.
3. Characteristics of the lambermen.
n. Body.
A. The men's home.
B. The marking and felling of the trees.
C. Method of transporting the logs down the mountain to
the river.
D. The guarding of the logs.
E. The men who travel with the logs.
1. Their dangers and precautions.
2. Their manner of life.
8. Their fears of log jams.
m. Conclusion.
A. The arrival of the logs at the milL
1. Location of the milL
B. The various ways in which the lumber is used*
The Lifb-Savinq Sebvicb of the United States
I. Introduction.
A. Definition of the Life-saving Service.
B. Extent of coast included under the system.
C. Location of the stations.
D. Control of the system.
EXPOSITION 151
n. Body.
A. The keeper.
1. Qualifications.
2. Duties.
3. Powers.
B. The life-saving crew.
1. Their duties when on watch.
2. Mode of service at wrecks.
(a) The signal of the discovery of a wreck.
(b) Rescue by the lifeboat.
(e) Rescue by the wreck-gun.
8. The drilL
(a) When held.
(b) Of what it consists.
in. Conclusion.
A. The benefits to life and property derived from this
service.
B. The cost to the government
EXEBCISE 24
1. Bead the following exposition, and write an outline
for it. Show that it has unity and coherence. Point out the
transition words which are of assistance in maintaining
coherence, in that they help to lead from one point or
topic to another, and to keep the arrangement clear.
There are many words in circulation among us which we under-
stand fairly well, which we use ourselves, and which we should,
however, find it difficult to define. I think that Americanism is
one of these words ; and I think also it is well for us to inquire
into the exact meaning of this word, which is often most care-
lessly employed. More than once of late wo have heard a public
man praised for his ^' aggressive Americanism," and occasionally
we have seen a man of letters denounced for his '' lack of Ameri-
152 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
eanism." Now what does the word really mean when it is thus
used?
It means, first of all, a love for this ooontry of onrs, an appre-
ciation of the institations of this nation, a pride in the history
of this people to which we belong. And to this extent Ameri'
eanism is simply another word for patriotistru But it means,
also, I think, more than this : it means a frank acceptance of
the principles which underlie our government here in the United
States. It means, therefore, a faith in our f ellowman, a belief in
liberty and in equality. It implies, further, so it seems to me, a
confidence in the future of this country, a confidence in its destiny,
a buoyant hopefulness that the right will surely prevaiL
In so far as Americanism is merely patriotism, it is a very
good thing. The man who does not think his own country the
finest in the world is either a pretty poor sort of a man or else he
has a pretty poor sort of a country. If any people have not patriot*
ism enough to make them willing to die that the nation may live,
then that people will soon be pushed aside in the struggle of life,
and that nation will be trampled upon and crushed ; probably it
will be conquered and absorbed by some race of a stronger fiber
and of a sterner stock. Perhaps it is difficult to declare precisely
which is the more pernicious citizen of a republic when there is
danger of war with another nation — the man who wants to fight^
right or wrong, or the man who does not want to fight, right or
wrong; the hot-headed fellow who would plunge the country
into a deadly struggle without first exhausting every possible
chance to obtain an honorable peace, or the cold-blooded person
who would willingly give up anything and everything, including
honor itself, sooner than risk the loss of money which every war
surely entails. *^ My country right or wrong " is a good motto
only when we add to it, ^* and if she is in the wrong, I '11 help to
put her in the right." To shrink absolutely from a fight where
honor is really at stake, this is the act of a coward. To rush
EXPOSITION 153
violently into a quarrel when war can be avoided without sacri-
fice of things dearer than life, this is the act of a fool.
Tme patriotism is quiet, simple, dignified ; it is not blatant^
Torbose, vociferous. The noisy shriekers who go about with a
ebip on their shoulders and cry aloud for war upon the slightest
provocation belong to the class contemptuously known as
^Jingoes." They may be patriotic,^ and as a fact they often
are, — but their patriotism is too frothy, too hysteric, too un-
intelligent, to inspire confidence. True patriotism is not swift to
resent an insult ; on the contrary, it is slow to take an offense,
slow to believe that an insult could have been intended. True
patriotism, believing fully in the honesty of its own acts, assumes
also that others are acting with the same honesty. True patriot-
ism, having a solid pride in the power and resources of our
country, doubts always the likelihood of any other nation being
willing carelessly to arouse our enmity.
In so far, therefore, as Americanism is merely patriotism it
is a very good thing, as I have tried to point out. But Ameri-
catiism is something more than patriotism. It calls not only for
love of our common country, but also for respect for our fellow-
man. It implies an actual acceptance of equality as a fact It
means a willingness always to act on the theory, not that ^' I *m as
good as the other man," but that '^ the other man is as good as I
am." It means leveling up rather than leveling down. It means
a reg^d for law, and a desire to gain our wishes and to advance
our ideas always decently and in order, and with deference to
the wishes and ideas of others. It leads a man always to ac-
knowledge the good faith of those with whom he is contending,
whether the contest is one of sport or of politics. It prevents a
man from declaring, or even from thinking, that all the right is
on his side, and that all honest people in the country are neces-
sarily of his opinion.
And, further, it seems to me true Americanism has faith and
154 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
hope* It belieyes the world is getting better, if not year hy
year, at least century by centary ; and it believes also that in
this steady improvement of the condition of mankind these
United States are destined to do their full share. . • . However
dark the oatlook for any given cause may be at any moment,
the man imbued with the true spirit of Americanism never aban-
dons hope and never relaxes effort ; he feels sure that every-
thing comes to him who waits. He knows that all reforms are
inevitable in the long run ; and that if they do not finally estab-
lish themselves it is because they are not really reforms. . . .
And a knowledge of the history of the American people will
supply ample reason for this faith in the future. • • •
True Americanism is sturdy but honest. • • . It is neither
yainglorious nor boastful. It knows that the world was not cre-
ated in 1492, and that July 4, 1776, is not the most important
date in the whole history of mankind. It does not overestimate
the contribution which America has made to the rest of the
world, nor does it underestimate this contribution. True Ameri-
canism, as I have said, has a pride in the past of this great
country of ours, and a faith in the future ; but none the less it
is not so foolish as to think that all is perfection on this side of
the Atlantic, and that all is imperfection on the other side.
It knows that some things are better here than anywhere else
in the world, that some things are no better, and that some
things are not so good in America as they are in Europe. For
example, probably the institutions of the nation fit the needs of
the population with less friction here in the United States than
in any other country in the world. But probably, also, there is
no other one of the great nations of the world in which the gov-
ernment of the large cities is so wasteful and so negligent.
True Americanism recognizes the fact that America is the
heir of the ages, and that it is for us to profit as best we can by
the experience of Europe^ not copying servilely what has bees
EXPOSITION 155
ARieceBsf al in tihe old world, but modifying what we borrow in
accord with oar own needs and oar own conditions. It knows*
and it has no hesitation in declaring, that we mast always be the
judges ourselves as to whether or not we shall foUow the ex-
ample of Europe. Many times we have refused to walk in the
path of European precedent, preferring very properly to blaze
out a track for ourselves. More often than not this independence
was wise, but now and again it was unwise.
Finally, one more quality of true Americanism must be
pointed out. It is not sectional. It does not dislike an idea, a
man, or a political party because that idea, that man, or that
party comes from a certain part of the country. It permits a
man to have a healthy pride in being a son of Virginia, a citi-
zen of New York, a native of Massachusetts, but only on condi-
tion that he has a pride still stronger that he is an American,
a citizen of the United States. True Americanism is never sec-
tional. It knows no North and no South, no East and no West.
And as it has no sectional likes and dislikes, so it has no interna-
tional likes and dislikes. It never puts itself in the attitude of
the Englishman who said, ^^ I 've no prejudices, thank Heaven,
but I do hate a Frenchman ! " It frowns upon all appeals to the
former allegiance of naturalized citizens of this country ; and it
thinks that it ought to be enough for any man to be an Ameri-
can without the aid of the hyphen which makes him a British-
American, an Irish-American, or a German-American.
True Americanism, to conclude, feels that a land which bred
Washington and Franklin in the last century, and Emerson and
Lincoln in this century, and which opens its schools wide to give
every boy a chance to model himself on these great men, is a
land deserving of Lowell's praise as '^ a good country to live in,
a good country to live for, and a good country to die for."
Bbandss Matihbws : FarU ofSpe^h ; Assays an Engliah.
156 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
2. What words in the above extract are not altogether
familiar to yon? Look them np in the dictionary and be
prepared to explain them to the class, f uUy and clearly.
8. Select and arrange the material necessary for an ex-
planation of two or more of the following:
(a) Some instrument, implement, or piece of mechanism with
which yon are familiar.
(b) The duties of a governor.
(c) How streets are paved.
(d) How the city gets its water supply.
{e) Church fairs.
(/) Tournaments (Scott's Ivanhoe^ Tennyson's IdytU of the
King).
4. Prepare to give a brief oral explanation of one of
the following :
(a) Ixrigatdon.
(b) Why water pipes burst in cold weather.
(c) How tides are caused.
(d) The use of shall and will,
{e) How to read a book vnth profit
(/) The best way to prepare a lesson.
6. Bring to class from yonr reading two examples of
introduction in exposition and two of conclusion. Point
out the special features in each.
6. Explain one of the following, first making an outline :
(a) How firemen proceed to put out a fire.
(b) How to build a fire.
(e) How to make a camp.
(d) How to run a furnace, or take care of an icebox, or raise
certain kinds of vegetables or flowers.
7. What is the purpose of the author in each paragraph
of the selection given in Exercise 24 (p. 151) ?
EXPOSITION 167
8. Wliat does the author seek to make dear in each of
the following selections?
Does he succeed in making you understand each point?
(1) Long ago Milton said that he who would be a great poet
must make bis own life a true poem. Lee had certainly no care
for being a great poet, but if ever man made his own life a
true poem, it was he. Grant's career has the vigor, the abmpt-
ness, the patness, the roughness, of a terse military dispatch. It
fits its place and fills it, and all is said. Lee's has the breadth,
the dignity, the majesty, the round and full completeness of a
Miltonic epic, none the less inspiring because its end is tragic
It was indeed a life lived in the grand style. Only, in these days
60 few people care for poetry. — Gamaliel Bkadfobd, Jr.:
Lee in BatUe (Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 108, No. 2).
(2) At the present time all civilized countries are becoming
keenly aware of the value of their embodied artistic possessions.
This is shown in the most decisive manner possible by the enor-
mous prices placed upon them. Their pecuniary value enables
even the stupidest and most unimaginative to realize the crime that
is committed when they are ruthlessly and wantonly destroyed.
Nor is it only the products of ancient art which have to-day be-
come so peculiarly valuable. The products of modern science
are only less valuable. So highly complex and elaborate is the
mechanism now required to insure progress in some of the sciences
that enormous sums of money, the most delicate skill, long periods
of time, are necessary to produce it. Galileo could replace his
telescope with but little trouble; the destruction of a single
modem observatory would be almost a calamity to the human
race.
Such consideratipns as these are, indeed, at last recognized in
all civilized countries. The engines of destruction now placed
at the service of war are vasUy more potent than any used in
158 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
the wan of the past On the other hand, the value of the pro-
ducts they can destroy is raised in a correspondingly high de-
gree. Bat a third factor is now intervening. And if the museums
of Paris, or the laboratories of Berlin, were threatened by a hos-
tile army it would certainly be felt that an international power,
if such existed, should be empowered to intervene, at whatever
cost to national susceptibilities, in order to keep the peace.
• • • A nation's art products and its scientific activities are
not mere national property : they are international possessions,
for the joy and service of the whole world. The nations hold
them in trust for humanity. The international force which will
inspire respect for that truth it is our business to create.
Havelock Ellis: The War Against War.
9. Bring to class an example of generalized description
and one of generalized narration.
89. Exposition by Definition. One of the processes
of exposition is definition. The meaning of a term
may be made clear by defining it, either roughly by
giving synonyms, or more exactly by assigning it to
its class and differentiating it from all other mem-
bers of that class. The latter method gives a com-
plete, exact definition such as is found in textbooks
in mathematics, science, and grammar. For example^
the definition,
A square is a figure having four equal sides and four right
angles,
is an exact definition. It first assigns the term square
to the class figures to which it belongs, and then
gives those characteristics which differentiate the
' square from other figures.
EXPOSITION 169
The class should be as small as possible in order
to restrict the classification.
In logical definitions especially^ you should take
your audience into consideration and take pains to
simplify matters from their point of view. Give sufli-
cient explanation and illustration so that understand-
ing is easy. For instance^ Samuel Johnson's definition
of network,
Anything reticulated or decussated, with interstices at equal
distances between the intersections,
is not much of an explanation to the average reader*
Approximate or imperfect definitions, however,
are in ordinary exposition more useful and are suffi-
cient to make clear the idea to be explained. A loose
classification is often more effective and intelligible
than the more exact and scientific classification.
Often the assignment to a class is entirely omitted,
and the definition merely states or denies or sug-
gests characteristic properties. These may not be
given in sufBcient numbers to permit of unmistak-
able identification ; they will serve, however, to make
clear the idea in the writer's mind. Note in the fol-
lowing definition the affirmation and denial of pro-
perties or characteristics.
They are not loyal : they are only servile ; not dntifoly only
sheepish ; not pnblic spirited, only patriotic ; not coarageons,
only quarrelsome ; not determined, only obstinate ; not master-
fill, only domineering ; not self-controUed, only obtuse ; not
self-respecting, only vain ; not kind, only sentimental ; not so-
cial, only gregarious i not consideratei only polite ; not intelU-
leO HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
gent, only opinionated; not progressiye, only factioos; not
imaginatiye, only saperstitioas ; not jast, only vindictiye ; not
generoasy only propitiatory ; not disciplined, only cowed ; and
not trathfol at alL
Geobgb Bebnabd Shaw : Man and Superman.^
See also the definition of Americanism (p. 151)^
and Newman's definition of a gentleman in A Gen-
tleman from Hie Idea of a University. How does
each author proceed to define his term ?
go. Comparison in Definition. Definition may be
made easier and more effective by using comparisons
and contrasts. These are suggested or stated, affirmed
or denied, just as you have seen that qualities may be.
By comparing or contrasting that which is to be
explained with something already understood, the
writer is enabled to make a direct appeal to the un-
derstanding through the imagination, thus saving
time and effort and adding interest.
Note the use of comparison in the following :
(1) Obvioosly, good English is exact English. Oar words
should fit our thoughts like a glove, and be neither too wide nor
too tight If too wide, they will include much vacuity beside the
intended matter. If too tight, they will check the strong grasp. Of
the two dangers, looseness is by far the greater. There are peo-
ple who say what they mean with such a naked precision that
nobody not familiar with the subject can quickly catch the sense.
Geobgb Hbbbebt Palmeb : Self-CuUivoition in English.
(2) For indeed the fact is, that there are idle poor and idle
rich ; and there are busy poor and busy rich. Many a beggar is
^ Copyright by Brentano.
EXPOSITION 161
as lazy as if he had ten thousand a year ; and many a man of
large fortune is busier than his errand-boy, and never would
think of stopping in the street to play marbles. So that in a
large view, the distinction between workers and idlers, as be-
tween knaves and honest men, runs through the very heart and
innermost economies of men of all rank and in all positions.
There is a working class — strong and happy — among both
rich and poor ; there is an idle class — weak, wicked, and miser-
able — among both rich and poor. And the worst of the misunder-
standings arising between the two orders come of the unlucky
fact that the wise of one class habitually contemplate the foolish
of the other. If the busy rich people watched and rebuked the
idle rich people, all would be right ;^ and if the busy poor watched
and rebuked the idle poor people, all would be right. But each
class has a tendency to look for the faults of the other. A hard-
working man of property is particularly offended by an idle
beggar ; and an orderly, but poor, workman is naturally in-
tolerant of the licentious luxury of the rich. And what is severe
judgment in the minds of the just men of either class, becomes
fierce enmity in the unjust — but among the unjust only. None
but the dissolute among the poor look upon the rich as their
natural enemies, or desire to pillage their houses and divide
their property. None but the dissolute among the rich speak in
opprobrious terms of the vices and follies of the poor.
John Ruskin: Crown of Wild Olive.
Definition is often accomplished by repeating the
process ; that is^ by multiplying synonyms or terms
closely related, by giving a number o£ imperfect
definitions, or by repeated comparisons or contrasts
as in the selection quoted above from Ruskin.
Imperfect definition plays a larger part in expo-
sition than exact definition. Its aim, of course, is
162 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
the perfect definition, but it is only an approxima-
tion.
91. Analysis. Definition^ as a process of exposi-
tion, takes up as an entirety that which is to be
explained. There is another process of exposition,
analysis, which views the subject in its component
parts. When a subject is vast and complex, division
is helpful and essential. For example, if we are dis-
cussing literature, we may divide our subject accord-
ing to form into the broad divisions of prose and
poetry. The subject may be again divided by making
subdivisions of each of these. Basing the classifica-
tion upon the author's purpose, poetry falls into the
classes, narrative, lyric, and dramatic, depending
upon whether the author's purpose was to write of
the deeds of others, of his own thoughts or feelings
instead of actions, or of deeds for the purpose of
liaving them acted. Similarly, prose may be divided
into the classes, history, fiction, the essay, and the
oration, depending again upon the author's purpose,
whether he tells of the actual deeds of other men,
of imaginary deeds, of his own opinions and judg^
ments, and whether these are to be read or spoken.
Analysis must be complete and exact, and accord-
ing to some fixed principle. If it is not in accordance
with some fixed principle, there will be cross-divisions,
which, instead of helping to make clear the subject,
will only serve to complicate it. To illustrate, col-
lege students may be divided according to their de-
velopment into freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and
EXPOSITION 163
seniors ; or according to their social life as fraternity
and non-fraternity men ; or according to their courses
as classical, scientific, and engineering students. It is
obvious that such a classification as juniors^ seniors,
fraternity men, and engineers would not be a logical
classification, for the groups are interrelated and one
man might come in three classes. Completeness in
analysis demands that all the objects belonging in
the class be included ; exactness demands that no
object be included in more than one division and
that all divisions be made according to the same
principle.
Just as in ordinary exposition we found partial
definition of frequent use, so in the case of analysis
or division of the subject, minor divisions may be
disregarded when the exposition does not aim for
scientific completeness. The classification, though
incomplete, is accurate and is helpful in making clear
the subject.
Note the division in the following and the use of
definition to help make the idea clear :
(1) To a European politician, by which I mean one who knows
politics bat does not know America, the aims of party organi-
zation, be it local or general, seem to be four in number —
Union — to keep the party together and to prevent it from
wasting its strength by dissensions and schisms.
Recruiting — to bring in new voters, e.g., immigrants when
they obtain citizenship, young men as they reach the age of
suffrage, newcomers, or residents hitherto indifferent or hostile.
Enthusiasm — to excite the voters by the sympathy of nam-
164 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
bers, and the sense of a common parpose, rousing them by
speeches or literature.
Instmction — to give the voters some knowledge of the po-
litical issues they have to decide, to inform them of the virtues
of their leaders, and the crimes of their opponents.
Bbygb : The American ComnioniffedUh,
(2) There are, however, two general classes of competency
which I wish to discuss to-day, and which are generated in the
schools. These are, Competency to Serve, and Competency to
Appreciate and Enjoy.
By competency to serve is meant that ability to perform one's
due proportion of the world's work which brings to society a
common benefit, which makes of this world a continually better
home for the race ; and which tends to fit the race for that im*
mortal life in which it puts its trust.
By competency to appreciate and enjoy is meant that ability
to understand, to appreciate, and to assimilate those great per-
sonal achievements of the past and present in the fields of the
true, the beautiful, and the good which brings into our lives a
kind of peace, and joy, and gratit de which can be found in no
other way.
Johnson : Two Kinds of Education for Engineers,
EXEBCISE 25
1. Write exact definitions of the following, first placing
each in the class to which it belongs, then adding its dif-
ferentiating characteristics :
(a) Hypnotism. (f) A foreigner.
(b) Elegy. (^) Bam.
(e) Epic. (h) Camera.
{d) A progressive (in politics), (t) Fiction.
(e) An insurgent. (j) Irrigation.
EXPOSITION 166
2. In the following, point out the defect in the defi-
nition. Supply the class if it is omitted and add the es-
sential differentiating characteristics.
(a) An aeroplane is a machine propelled hj a gasoline motor.
(b) A ballad is a narrative poem.
{e) A college is an institution for the edacation of young men
and women.
(d) ^^ A friend is a person with whom I may be sincere."
Emebsqst.
(e) A lawn mower is an implement for cutting grass.
(J) Athletics are activities.
8. Supply the class for each of the foUowing:
(a) Hammer. (e) Witticism*
(b) Book. (f) A classic.
(c) Watch. (^) SundiaL
(d) Lamp. (A) Manual training.
4. Bring to class three examples of exact definitions
and two of partial definitions.
6. Bring to class five examples of classification or
analysis of a subject selected from your textbooks.
6. What divisions of subject occur to you in the case of
each of the following ? Write an outline of each.
(a) Methods of transportation in our city.
(b) Oar industries.
(e) Athletics in our school.
(d) Labor-saving devices in use in our locality.
92. Methods of Exposition. One method of ex-
position you have already studied in connection with
the process of definition, that is, comparison or con-
trast. There are other methods of developing an
idea to make it clear. They are: repetition of the
166 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
idea in other words ; the citation of examples and
specific instances^ cause and effect^ particulars and
details. These are^ in fact, the methods of paragraph
development which are explained in §§ 164-169 (pp,
288-299).
93. Interpretation. One function of exposition is
the interpretation of life in its varying forms, the
drawing of inferences about the inner meanings of
forms and appearances. The writer gives his per-
sonal view of the subject presented. He deduces the
significance or trend of public affairs, as in an edi-
torial; he writes a criticism of books, discussing and
commenting on their moral and artistic qualities,
their sentiments and their purposes (see § 171);
he estimates the value of other branches of art, as
painting, sculpture, architecture, music; he inter-
prets texts and character; and he discusses in a con-
vincing and stimulating manner abstract ideas such
as friendship, compensation, self-reliance. He must
first do a good deal of thinkmg and feeling, and
then be able to present his views in an interesting,
individual manner.
Sometimes the interpreter, instead of drawing in-
ferences, merely sets forth his facts in such a way
that the inference is unmistakable. This form of ex-
position is for the most part generalized description
and narration dealing with a general class to which
the person or thing belongs, and is often hardly
distinguishable from simple description and narra*
tion.
EXPOSITION 167
EXEBCISE 26
1. (a) Write for your school paper an aoconnt of some
matter of general interest.
(&) Write an editorial based on your news item,
(c) What method of exposition did you use?
2. Prepare to explain orally to the class one of the fol-
lowing subjects. In your preparation get together all the
information you can on the subject ; organize your ma-
terial by writing a simple outline ; then write an intro-
ductory sentence which contains the gist of the subject
you are to explain. This introductory sentence may be a
definition or a general statement. It may be used as the
introduction to your remarks or merely kept in mind. Its
purpose is to help you to keep to the particular phase of
your subject which you are to discuss.
(a) Asphalt paving.
(b) The building of a hoase or bam or school building.
(e) The work of the farmer, the doctor, or any artisan or
professional man with whose duties yon are familiar.
{d) How paper is made,
(e) Taking and developing a photograph.
(/) The Dead-Letter Office.
(g) A mill.
8. Write an exposition of one of the subjects which you
outlined in Exercise 25, Ex. 6 (p. 165).
4. Explain to a younger person the meaning of one or
more of the foUowing terms, being careful to use only
such points as will be intelligible and interesting to him:
(a) A trust. (e) Telephone.
(b) Biplane. (J) Treaty.
(e) Reciprocity. (g) Road making.
{d) Milky Way. (A) Harvester.
168 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
(i) Political national conveii- (2) Fireless cooker*
tions. (m) Vacuam cleaner.
(j) The moon's phases. (n) Compressed air.
(A;) Cofferdam. (o) Microscope*
6. Write a generalized description of one of the following :
(a) The country store.
(b) The parlor of a country hotel or farmhouse.
(c) The scenery typical of some section of the country.
(d) The city street (at some definite time).
(e) School assembly.
(f) The street car during rush hours.
(jgf) City back yards.
6. Write a generalized narrative giving the typical hap-,
penings associated with one or more of the following :
(a) Getting ready for schooL
(b) Christmas.
(e) Hunting for a lost article.
(d) Learning to play golf, to drive an automobile, to use roller
skates, to dance, or to play a piano.
(e) Going on a picnic.
(/) Being late at church.
(g) Getting caught in a shower.
7. Point out in what respect your themes in Exs. 6 and
6 differ from pure description and narration.
8. (a) Write a brief expository essay defining one of
the following subjects. What method or methods of expo-
sition have you used ?
(1) Class loyalty.
(2) School spirit
(3) Sport for sport's sake.
(4) Grames of skill and games of chance.
(5) Genius and talent.
EXPOSITION 169
(5) After you have written your essay, sum up the
substance in a concise defining phrase.
(c) Discuss the subjects under (a) as to the methods
of exposition which would seem to you most effective in
each case.
9. Select from your textbooks or your reading an ex-
ample of exposition in which the author has expressed or
implied a division of the subject.
10. Study the following. What is Newman's method
of exposition? In what does the greatness of a ^* great
author" consist?
He [the great aathor] is not one who merely has a capict
verborunij whether in prose or verse, and can, as it were, turn
on at his will any number of splendid phrases and swelling sen«
tences ; but he is one who has something to say and knows how
to say it. I do not claim for him, as such, any great depth of
thought, or breadth of view, or philosophy, or sagacity, or know-
ledge of human nature, or experience of human life, though
these additional gifts he may have, and the more he has of
them the greater he is ; but I ascribe to him, as his character-
istic gift, in a large sense the faculty of expression. . . .
He writes passionately, because he feels keenly ; forcibly, h&'
cause he conceives vividly ; he sees too clearly to be vague ; he
is too serious to be otiose ; he can analyze his subject, and there-
fore he is rich ; he embraces it as a whole and in its parts, and
therefore he is consistent ; he has a firm hold of it, and there-
fore he is luminous. When his imagination wells up, it overflows
in ornament ; when his heart is touched, it thrills along his
verse. He always has the right word for the right idea, and
never a word too much. If he is brief it is because few words
suffice ; when he is lavish of them, still each word has its mark,
and aids, not embarrasses, the vigorous march of his elocution.
He expresses what all f eel, but all cannot say ; and his sayings
170 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
pass into proverbs among his people and his phrases become
household words and idioms of their daily speech, which is tes-
sellated with the rich fragments of his language, as we see in
foreign lands the marbles of Roman grandeur worked into the
walls and pavements of modern palaces.
Newman : Lectures on University Subjects.
11. Characterize one of the following in a way similar
to Newman's characterization :
(a) The great man (in public life).
(b) The great teacher.
(c) The great work.
12. Divide, in as many ways as possible, one or more of
the following, preparatory to writing a theme on some
phase of the subject selected :
(a) Vacations. (A) Lectures.
(b) Recreation. (i) Awarding prizes,
(o) High school education, {j) Afternoon teas.
(d) Magazine reading. (k) Writing themes.
(e) Engineering. (l) Studying history.
(/) Good housekeeping. (m) Conversation.
(ff) City newspapers. (n) Losing one's temper.
13. Write a short explanation of one of these subjects
following a logical plan by giving : (1) a description of
parts such as is necessary for clearness ; (2) an explana-
tion of the uses of these parts, or of the principle in-
volved.
(a) A typewriter.
(b) Weather signals.
(e) Some apparatus with which you are familiar in laboratory
work or in work outside of school.
(d) How a boat goes through a lock.
EXPOSITION 171
(e) The principle of the telegraph.
(/) How to play tennis and keep score.
14. By use of diagrams, and by comparison and con-
trast, explain the difference between
(a) A maple tree and an elm.
(b) A skiff and a canoe.
(c) Cricket and basebalL
(d) The open and mass formations in the game of footbalL
(e) Two machines of the same kind bat of different make.
15. Using sketches or diagrams where they will be of
assistance, explain
l(a) The principle of an ice-cream freezer.
{b) The construction of a sailboat.
(c) How to make a chicken-brooder.
(d) Why days are longer in summer than in winter.
(e) What causes an eclipse of the sun or moon.
(/) How to construct a sail for skate-sailing.
(g) A flowing well.
(h) A mail catcher.
16. Write an explanation of one of the following, using
a good comparison or example or specific instance that
helps to make clear the idea :
(a) Making a speech. (d) A system of yentilation.
(b) Learning a trade. (e) Successful failures.
(c) The raising of wheat. (/) Courage and cowardice.
17. By making use of particulars and details, write an
explanation of one of the following :
(a) Ranch life.
(b) A pageant.
(c) Our coast defense.
(d) The Panama Canal.
(e) How to iron a shirt waist (or set a table).
172 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
18. Discussing oanse and effect, write an exposition on
0ne of the following :
(a) How ravines are formed.
(b) Freshets.
(e) The causes of the Spanish-American War.
(d) Effects of rest and sleep.
(e) The effects of the Missouri Compromise.
19. Explain by giving a series of comparisons and
contrasts :
(a) Fame and notoriety.
(b) Novel and romance.
(c) Men of thought and men of action*
(d) Puritans and Cavaliers.
20. By means of repetition, explain one of the following
propositions :
(a) The Monroe Doctrine stands as a warning to all foreign
powers that America is for Americans.
(b) Calamity is a mighty leveler.
(e) The foreigner has rendered America a great service.
21. Explain orally to the class what is meant by one or
more of the following quotations. Use examples to illus-
trate your meaning.
(a) A primrose by the river's brim
A yellow primrose was to him
And it was nothing more.
(b) I am a part of all I have met
(c) Be not over-exquisite
To cast the fashion of uncertain evils ;
For grant they be so, while they rest unknown^
What need a man forestall his date of grief,
And run to meet what he would most avoid ?
3
O
a
«•
a
«
Q
a
o
&
EXPOSITION 173
{d) Fook rash in where angels fear to tread.
(e) The best-hiid schemes o' mice an' men
Gang aft a-gley.
22. (a) Describe yoar favorite character in the books
jrou have read during yoar high school course.
(&) Describe your favorite character in history.
23. Write a sketch on one or more of the following;
make a careful outline.
(a) Newsboys.
(b) Shop-girls. (Try to rouse some sympathy in their hard-
ships.)
(e) The old-time grandmother.
(d) The country doctor.
(e) The bargain shopper.
(/) The social leader.
(g) The leader of the gang (of boys).
(A) The self-made man.
(t) The village politician.
(J) The college man (or girl).
24. Bring to class a passage of prose or poetry which
you have enjoyed but which has caused you some effort to
understand. Bead and explain the passage to the class.
25. Visit some manufacturing plant in your neighbor-
hood and then explain to the class the process observed.
26. Make a list of ten topics about which you have been
wanting to know. Are yon able to explain any of the
subjects listed by your classmates? Choose one of your
classmates' topics and be prepared to explain it in your
next recitation.
27. Make a note of recitations given In your classes
which have seemed to you to lack clearness in explanation.
To what was the failure due ? Give a satisfactory expla-
174 HIGH SCHOO: ENGLISH
nation of one of the recitation subjects, showing wherein
you have improved the exposition by observing certain
principles. In what classes other than English have you
noticed that exposition is frequently used?
28. (a) Bring to class two criticisms of recent books
f eund in current magazines. What points are taken up in
each?
(hi) Write a criticism along similar lines of the last
book you have read.
29. Make a list of all the types of expository writing
you have come across. What is the characteristic feature
of each ?
80. Write an abstract of the last lecture or address you
have heard, or of a magazine article you have recently
read which has pleased you and which you think has inter-
est for the class.
81. Write an expository composition of at least two
hundred words on one of the following:
(a) A prominent character in public life in your own state
at present.
(fi) An American woman who has achieved distinction.
(e) Possibilities of the aeroplane.
(d) Importance of the Saratoga campaign in the Revolution-
ary War.
(e) Importance of the possession of the Mississippi Biver in
the Civil War.
(/) The character of the reign of an English sovereign.
Note : Remember that narration may be used for purposes of
illustration. What method or methods of exposition did yoa nse ?
32. (a) Explain to an English friend how the Presi-
dent of the United States is elected : or
(b) Explain to a student from a neighboring school the
EXPOSITION 175
advantages to students resulting from the organization of
a debating society.
83. Study the picture facing page 173. Write an ex-
planation of the scene portrayed. Try to interpret the
facial expressions.
CHAPTER Vn
AR6XTMENTATI0N
94* Aigumentation: Definition and Use. Argu-
mentation is that form of discourse which aims to
make others believe as you believe, or act as you
would have them act. As no two people agree in all
their beliefs, and as men are continually trying to
establish the true and overcome the false, the field
of argumentation is a vast one. The child trying to
convince his playmate that his game is the more
fun, the business man, the scientist, the lawyer, the
preacher, the teacher, the leader in social circles
and in governing bodies, — all make use of this
form of discourse. Each is successful in convincing
others in proportion to his ability to think clearly,
and to present his thoughts accurately, logically,
and forcefully. He must not only feel strongly ; he
must think clearly. The lawyer is specially trained
to bring others to his conclusions, but everybody
has need of some training in the processes of argu-
ment if he is to be able to supply the reasons for his
'^because," or to reach the right conclusions in the
debates with his own conscience.
95. Logic. The basis of argument, as you have
already observed, is clear thinking, correct reason-
ARGUMENTATION 177
ingy or logiCy as it is commonly called. Logic is the
science of correct thinking. It is not concerned with
the right and wrong of the question ; it is concerned
only with the thought processes, the relation between
the reasons set forth and the conclusion established.
It has to do with both sides of the question and
with the establishment of the ultimate conclusion.
Clear reasoning is essential not only in convincing
others, but in the intelligent understanding of the
arguments of others.
96. Narration, Description, and Exposition in
Argument. Argument makes use of all the other
forms of discourse : narration, description, and ex-
position. But it makes use of these merely as an aid
in convincing and in persuading.
It is often necessary, in the course of proof, to
narrate a chain of events or circumstances from
which a conclusion is drawn ; or to describe a situa-
tion, a place, or a scene, thereby showing that the
conditions were favorable to your conclusion. Argu-
ment makes more frequent use, however, of exposi-
tion. Sometimes all that is essential to make another
person accept your opinion is to explain the situa-
tion. When he understands, he agrees, and actual
proof is unnecessary. But even if understanding
does not bring agreement, exposition still has place
in argument; to make your points, every step in
your reasoning must be explained. Exposition is
usually the first step in argument. The difference
between exposition and argument, indeed, is one of
178 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
purpose only, the former aiming to make the reader
understand, the latter to make him agree.
EX£BCI8£ 27
1. In the extracts at the end of this Exercise, what
opinion is set forth in each case? Do you consider that
the opinion is established ? Explain your answer. What
form of discourse has each writer used ?
2. Bring to class an example of the use in argument of
description ; of narration ; of exposition. You will be able
to find these in newspaper editorials and in articles in
current magazines. Show whether or not the form of dis-
course used in each case is effective.
8. Study the selections quoted in the chapter on expo-
sition and note whether any of them could be classed as
argument as well as exposition. In what respect are they
expository ; in what argmnentative?
4. Narrate orally an incident from which certain infer-
ences may be drawn, pointing to a conclusion.
5. Describe a chain of circumstances that have come
to your notice from which a conclusion may be drawn.
(1) The State of Vermont contains a prison where the inmates
are treated upon a novel plan. They are trusted and treated like
other human beings ; they come and go almost as freely as the
members of the jailer's own family ; so far as possible whatever
suggests punishment or disgrace is banished ; and they are made
to feel that their imprisonment is designed to improve them as
men, and to restore them to social life not only with full self-
respect but with the cordial respect of the community. . . •
I visited the Montpelier jail, where I spent the greater part
of a day talking with prisoners, first in company with the deputy
sheriff and then alone, with full permission to discover opposi-
tion to the management if I could. In this way I made the
ARGUMENTATION 179
personal acquaintance of the men. Later, on the main street of
the city, whom shonld I meet bat five or six of these very prison-
ers, walking along with smiling faces and a happy air, no more
resembling the conventional criminal than did the merchants,
workingmen, and lawyers with whom they mingled. Here was
one of the keys to the mystery. No officer was aboat, keeping
an eye on them ; no peculiarity of clothing indicated who they
were ; they were free to walk off if they pleased, and no one at
the jail was worrying about them ; and, best of all, the citizens
of Montpelier, who knew perfectly well that inmates of the
county prison were at all times of the day and evening at large
in their midst, were worrying no more about it than were the
sheriff and his assistants themselves.
And yet, four years ago when the system was first put into
o{)eration, a very decided tremor convulsed these very citizens.
MoBBisoN I. Swift : Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 108, No. 2.
(2) Of all places for a view, this Calton Hill is perhaps the
best; since you can see the Castle, which you lose from the
Castle, and Arthur's Seat, which you cannot see from Arthur's
Seat. It is the place to stroll on one of those days of sunshine
and east wind which are so common in our more than temperate
summer. The breeze comes off the sea, with a little of the fresh-
ness, and that touch of chill, peculiar to the quarter. • « • It
brings with it a faint, floating haze, a cunning decolorizer al-
though not thick enough to obscure outlines near at hand. But
the haze lies more thickly to windward at the far end of Mussel-
burgh Bay ; and over the links of Aberlady and Berwick Law
and the hump of Bass Bock it assumes the aspect of a bank of
thin sea fog.
Immediately underneath, upon the south, yon command the
yards of the High School, and the towers, and courts of the
new jail — a large place, castellated to the extent of folly, stand-
180 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
ing by itself on the edge of a steepcliff and often joyfaDy hailed
by toarists ae the Castle. • • . From the bottom of the yaUey,a
gigantic chimney rises aknost to the level of the eye, a taller and
a shapelier edifice than Nelson's Monument Look a little farther
and there is Holyrood PaUice, with its Grothic frontal and
rained Abbey.
Stevenson: Edinburgh: Picturesque Nctes.
(3) There were f oar [greyhounds], all of pare breed ; and as
they were never taken oat to hunt, and could not, like the
collie, take their share in the ordinary work of tlie establish-
ment, they were absolutely useless, and certainly not omamentaL
When I first noticed them they were pitiable objects, thin as
skeletons, so lame that they could scarcely walk, and wounded
and scratched all over with thorns. I was told they had been
out hunting on their own account in the thorny upland, and that
this was the result. For three or four days they remained in-
active, sleeping the whole time, except when they limped to the
kitchen to be fed. But day by day they improved in condition ;
their scratches healed, their ribbed sides grew smooth and sleek,
and they recovered from their lameness ; but scarcely had they
got well before it was discovered one morning that they had
vanished. They had gone o£E during the night to hunt again on
the uplands. They were absent two nights and a day, then re-
turned, looking even more reduced and miserable than when I
first saw them, to recover slowly from their hurts and fatigue ;
and when well again they were off once more ; and so it con-
tinued during the whole time of my visit. These hounds, if left
to themselves, would have soon perished.
W. H. Hudson : Idle Days in Patagonia.
(4) Dr. Talmage has drawn for you, with a master's hand, the
picture of your returning armies. He has told you how in the
pomp and circumstance of war, they came back to you, march*
ARGUMENTATION 181
ing with proud and victorioas tread, reading their glory in a
nation's eyes ! Will you hear with me while I tell yon of another
army that sought its home at the close of the late war ; an
army that marched home in defeat and not in victory ; in pathos
not in splendor ; hut in glory that equalled yours, and to hearts
as loving as ever welcomed heroes home ? Let me picture to you
the footsore Confederate soldier as, huttoning up in his faded gray
jacket the parole which was to hear testimony to his children of
his fidelity and faith, he turned his f acQ southward from Appo-
mattox in April, 1865.
Think of him as — ragged, half-starved, heavy-hearted, en-
f eehled hy want and wounds, having fought to exhaustion — he
surrenders his gun, wrings the hands of his comrades in silence,
and lifting his tear-stained and pallid face for the last time to
the graves that dot old Virginia hills, pulls his gray cap over his
hrow and hegins the slow and painful journey. What does he
find— let me ask you who went to your homes eager to find, in
the welcome you had justly earned, full payment for four years*
sacrifice — what does he find when, having followed the battle-
stained cross against overwhelming odds, dreading death not
half so much as surrender, he reaches the home he left so pros-
perous and beautiful ?
He finds his house in ruins, his farm devastated, his slaves
free, his stock killed, his barns empty, his trade destroyed, his
money worthless, his social system, feudal in its magnificence,
swept away ; his people without law or legal status, his com-
rades slain, and the burdens of others heavy on his shoulders.
Crushed by defeat, his very traditions are gone. Without money,
credit, employment, material, or training ; and besides all this
confronted with the gravest problem that ever met human intel-
ligence — the establishing of a status for the vast body of his
liberated slaves.
What does he do-— • • • ? Does he sit down in sullenness and
182 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
despair ? Not for a day. Sarely God who had stripped him of
his prosperity, inspired him in his adversity. As rain was never
hefore so overwhelming, never was restoration swifter. The
soldier stepped from the trenches into the furrow ; horses that
had charged Federal guns marched hefore the plow, and fields
that ran red with human blood in April were green with the
harvest in June ; • • • There was little bitterness in all thist
Cheerfulness and frankness previuled.
Henby W. Gsadt : The New South.
97. The Proposition. A question put in form for
argument is called the proposition. That your hearers
may understand just what you are arguing, it is es-
sential that the proposition be stated clearly and
definitely. It should be put in sentence form, with
both sentence elements expressed^ the one afi&rming
or denying something of the other. For example, in
the proposition, "Cities should own and operate their
street railways/' the predicate makes an affirmation
about cities — that they should own their street rail-
ways. The opponent would make a denial of the
same statement; as, "Cities should not own and
operate their street railways." A mere term like
"cities " cannot be argued. There must be a state-
ment about cities.
Propositions may be stated in declarative sentences^
in the form of a resolution, or in interrogative form.
Even in the interrogative form, however, an affir-
mation is implied; hence it is better to use the declar-
ative sentence.
You have seen that propositions must be clear and
ARGUMENTATTON 183
definite. To this end, complicated sentence structure
and ambiguous or careless wording must be avoided. If
a word is open to more than one interpi'etation^it must
be explained carefully at the outset ; otherwise your
opponent may not have in mind the same point you
' have, and your argument will be futile. Therefore,
state the proposition and e'xplain it clearly at the
beginning of the discussion and keep it in mind
throughout the argument.
98. Assertion and Proof. Assertion is not proof.
An emphatic statement of what to you is a truth is
not accepted by another until proof is advanced. An
announcement that you are going to a college of
engineering rather than to a college of arts because
it would be more advantageous, your father does not
accept until you set forth those advantages and
prove to him that your decision is not an impulsive
one but is based on careful reasoning. Your friends
demand something more than your mere assertion
that a certain lake shore is the place to choose for
the summer camping trip. It is important that every
statement you make be based upon proof and that
the proof be given in clear y logical form. Let no
statement pass that is not supported by good rear
sons.
EXEBCISE 28
1. State your opinion in regard to each of the following,
in the form of a proposition ; bring it to class for criticism.
(a) Coaching from the side lines.
(p) A college education.
184 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
(e) The best kind of summer vacatioik
{d) High school dramatics.
(e) The speeding of aatomobileflu
(/) The elective system in schools.
2. Write out for each selection given on pages 178-
182 the opinion the author had in mind.
8. What words or terms in the propositions yon have
written in Exs. 1 and 2 need explanation? Write, or give
orally, the necessary explanation in each case.
4. Select one of the propositions yon have formed in
Ex. 1 and make a list of reasons supporting your opinion.
Write the list of reasons which your opponent would be
likely to offer.
5. Becall some opinion you have lately advanced which
has not been accepted. Write out the reasons you offered.
Are any of them mere assertions? State proof for each
point, rejecting all points you cannot prove. What were
your hearer's objections to your opinion? Write his
points. With both sides of the question before you, which
seems the stronger? Perhaps you failed to convince be-
cause you did not consider the other side of the question.
What new points occurred to you after hearing the other
side?
99. Direct Proof and Refutation. From Ex. 5 it
is seen that it is not sufficient merely to advance your
own reasons; you must anticipate your opponent's
arguments and offset them with the best reasons you
can offer. The reasons supporting your own opinion
are known as direct proof; those offsetting an oppo-
nent's arguments are called refutation.
100. Presentation of Proof. After the proposition
has been clearly worded and explained so that the
ARGUMENTATION 185
point at issue is definitely in mind^ tbe next concern
is the evidence or proof and its presentation.
loi. Evidence. Evidence is matter presented as
proof of a proposition. It consists oifacts^ the opin-
ions of fair-minded men who are accepted as author-
ities, and logical reasoning. Evidence is classed as
direct or indirect. Direct evidence is such as has
immediate bearing upon the question at hand ; indi-
rect evidence is such as has no immediate bearing but
is based upon some fact or circumstance relating to
the case under consideration. This last form is also
known as circumstantial evidence.
Examine the following; point out and classify the
evidence.
(1) The commerce of your Colonies is out of all proportion
beyond the numbers of the people. This ground of their com-
merce, indeed, has been trod some days ago, and with gpreat
ability, by a distinguished person, at your bar. • • •
Sir, I should be inexcusable in coming after such a person with
any detail, if a g^eat part of the members who now fill the House
had not the misfortune to be absent when he appeared at your
bar. .,. .
I have in my hand two accounts : one a comparative state of
the export trade of England to its Colonies, as it stood in the
year 1704, and as it stood in the year 1772 They are
from good vouchers : the latter period from the accounts on your
table ; the earlier from an original manuscript of Davenant, who
first established the Inspector-Greneral's office, which has been
ever since his time so abundant a source of parliamentary infor-
mation.
BuBEB : On CanoUiaiunu
186 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
(2) The new evidence of an outside explosion that has come
to light in exploring the wreck of the battleship Maine has
caused something of a reversal of earlier opinions. Perhaps the
country was right after all in blaming some unknown Spaniard
for it/ many are now saying. Dispatches from Havana state
that '^ tlie double bottom of the Maine is greatly elevated above
its normal position apparently giving confirmatory evidence of
a tremendous exterior explosion, and that a curved piece of
steel has been found in the confused mass of wreckage sur-
rounding the bow that is believed to be what Ensign Powelson
identified before the Sampson Court of Inquiry as part of the
keel." All of which leads the New York Times to conclude
that the Sampson Court's decision has been justified by the
facts.
The Literary Digest, Vol. 43, No. 5.
(3) When the Sampson Board of Inquiry made, a few days
after the sinking of the Maine, an examination of the wreck as
nearly complete as the facilities at its command permitted, the
members reached tho conclusion, founded chiefly on the reports
of divers, that the ship was destroyed by a submarine bomb, the
explosion of which had exploded two or more of the Maine's
own magazines. In other words, they found that there had been
both outside and inside explosions, the latter doing the greater
part of the damage to the hull, but itself the direct consequence
of the former, and therefore not to be regarded as a causative
factor in the case.
The Board expressed no opinion as to who placed or fired the
bomb, and that question remains unanswered to this day. Of the
many stories that have been told, some implicating the Spanish
authorities of the island and some the revolutionists, none has
been supported by evidence even to the point of plausibility. . . •
The findings of the Sampson Board, the accuracy of which has
ARGUMENTATION 187
been so often doubted or denied, are not impugned but vindi-
cated. All can now see what the divers dimly saw <^ parts oi
the keel and bottom blown upward through the ship's decks.
This can mean only one thing, and the one thing is an initiatory
outside explosion*
2%6 New York Times.
As evidence is used in proof of a point, so the
absence of evidence — that is, the absence of facts
or circumstances to prove the point — is considered
as an argument against the point. For example^
Burke argues that, because parliamentary records
make no mention of any receipts from a revenue by
imposition, such a method of taxation was unsatis-
factory to both the Colonies and England.
102. Argument by Stating Advantages and Dis-
advantages. One method of proving a proposition
is by stating advantages and disadvantages. In such
propositions the decision has to do with the expedi-
ency or inexpediency of a line of action, and there
is no way of determining what is absolutely right.
The values of the advantages and disadvantar,es must
be weighed, inconveniences must be balanced, and
the least inconvenient chosen. Such propositions dif-
fer from those which may be proved by citing facts
as evidence, in that the former are questions of pohcy,
the latter questions of fact.
Study the following selections in connection with
argument by stating advantages and disadvantages.
Point out the advantages and disadvantages set forth
in each.
188 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
(1) Academic athletics have their drawbacks : there are per-
sonal liabilities from overtraining as from overstady, there are
tendencies to professionalism which mast be carefully watched,
there are rivalries which may become ungenerous, and which
ought to be suspended ; but, f uudamentally, athletics are a pro-
tection to vigorous and healthy scholarship far more than a detri-
ment to it, as I believe would appear in no long time, if recreation
were offered as a substitute for athletics. From the days of the
Greeks till now, athletics have had a legitimate place in acar
demic life. — William Jewett Tucker: "Undergraduata
SchoUrship/' The AUantio M<mthlyj YoL 107, No. 6.
(2) Compare the two. This I offer you is plain and simple;
the other full of perplexed and intricate mazes. This is mild;
that harsh. This is found by experience effectual for its pur-
poses ; the other is a new project. This is universal ; the other
calculated for certain G>lonies only. This is immediate in its con-
ciliatory operation ; the other remote, contingent, full of hazard*
Mine is what becomes the dignity of a ruling people, — gratuitous^
unconditional, and not held out as matter of bargain and sale.
BuBKE : On Caneiliation.
103. Argument by Means of Specific Instances or
Examples. A second method of proving a proposi-
tion is by stating specific instances which point un-
mistakably to the desired conclusion. The greater
the number of specific instances or examples you can
give in support of the conclusion, the better estab-
lished it becomes. Burke, in arguing that there is
precedent for securing peace through concession,
gives as specific instances the cases of Ireland, Walesf,
Chester, and Durham.
ABGUMENTATION 189
In the following selections observe the use of
specific instances or examples :
This same party spirit naturally denies the patriotism of its
opponents. Identifying itself with the country, it regards all
others as public enemies. This is substantially revolutionary
politics. It is the condition of France, where, in its own words,
the revolution is permanent. Instead of regarding the other
party as legitimate opponents • • • lawfully seeking a different
policy under the government, it decries that party as a con-
spiracy plotting the overthrow of the government itself. History
is lurid with the wasting fires of this madness. We need not look
to that of other lands. Our own is full of it. It is painful to turn
to the opening years of the Union, and see how the great men
whom we are taught to revere • • • fanned their hatred and
suspicions of each other. . . . Eighty years ago the Federalists
abhorred their opponents as Jacobins, and thought Robespierre
and Marat no worse than Washington's Secretary of State.
Their opponents retorted that the Federalists were plotting to
establish a monarchy by force of arms. The New England pul«
pit anathematized Tom Jefferson as an atheist and a satyr. Jef-
ferson denounced John Jay as a rogue, and the chief newspaper
of the opposition, on the morning that Washington retired from
the presidency, thanked God that the country was now rid of the
man who was the source of all its misfortunes. There is no mire
in which party spirit wallows to-day with which our fathers were
not befouled, and how little sincere the vituperation was, how
shallow a fury, appears when Jefferson and Adams had retired
from public life. Then they corresponded placidly and familiarly,
each at last conscious of the other's fervent patriotism ; and when
they died, they were lamented in common by those who in their
names had flown at each other's throats. — 6b:obgb Willum
CuBTis: The Fublio DtUi/ of JEducaUd Mm*
190 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
Exercise 29
1. From your reading, find examples of each of the fol-
lowing :
(a) Evidence nsed in argament.
(b) Proof by stating advantages and disadvantages.
(p) The use of specific instances.
2. What specific instances have inclined you to believe
or disbelieve the following ?
(a) Women are efficient in business.
(b) Football is a dangerous game.
(c) Advertising pays.
(d) American colleges excel in athletics.
(e) Climate influences character.
(/) Macaulay is a trustworthy historian.
(g) Necessities of life were once luxuries.
3. What advantages and disadvantages can you think
of in connection with each of the following ?
(a) The two-session day in high school is preferable to the
single-eession day.
(b) Every high school should have its own playground.
(c) Senators should be elected by popular vote.
(d) A woman should be trained to earn her own living.
(e) The college course of four years should be shortened*
4. Choosing that proposition in Ex. 8 for which you
have the strongest proof, write your arguments.
6. In the selections which you found for Ex. 1, what
method of proof has the author used in each case ? What
kind of evidence ?
6. Bring to class an example of proof by the use of
direct evidence.
7« From your reading find an example of a conclusion
ARGUMENTATION 191
reached by means of circumstantial evidence. Which evi*
dence seems to you the more trustworthy and convincing^
circumstantial (indirect) or direct? Why?
8. Point out the examples of argument from precedent
in Burke's Speech on Conciliation. Why was this method
of proof effective in Burke's argument? Would it have
the same force to-day? Give reasons to support your con*
elusion.
9. Find instances of argument from example in Burke's
speech.
104. Argument from Cause and Effect. A third
method of proof is by reasoning from cause to effect
and from effect back to cause. The relation between
cause and effect is so close that^ when one is known^
definite conclusions are drawn about the other. We
believe that things happen as the result of definite
causes; that if sufficient causes are present^ definite
results may be expected. If there is a heavy sleet
storm^ you may reasonably conclude that the trolley
cars will be delayed. Should a high wind accompany
or follow the sleet storm, your further inference
would be that telegraph and telephone connection
with surrounding cities will be disabled. You are
arguing that a result is certain, given adequate cause.
Again, upon noticing that the leaves of the elm trees
in your vicinity look brown and dead and that they
are perforated, you feel sure that the destructive
beetle is at work. In this case you are reasoning
from effect back to cause. Many of your every-day
conclusions are reached through reasoning of this
kind.
192 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
The reasoning involved in arguing from cause to
effect is called a priori reasoning ; that used in
arguing from effect to cause is called a posteriori
reasoning.
Notice the use of cause and effect in the follow-
ing:
I have spoken of three cbanges in the national condition* • • •
There 18 a f onrth. • • • It concerns the character of the foreigner
now resorting to oar shores. Fifty, even thirty years ago^ there
was a rightf nl presumption regarding the average immigrant
that he was among the most enterprising, thrifty, alert, adven*
taroas, and courageous of the community from which he came.
It required no small energy, prudence, forethought, and pains
to conduct the inquiries relating to his migration, to accumulate
the necessary means, and to find his way across the Atlantic.
To-day the presumption is completely reversed. So thoroughly
has the continent of Europe been crossed by railways, so effec*
tively has the business of emigration there been exploited, so
much have the rates of railroad fares and ocean passage been
reduced, that it is now among the least thrifty and prosperous
members of any European community that the emigration agent
finds his best recruiting ground. — Francis Amasa Walker t
Discussions in Economics and Statistics^ Vol. n, p. 447.
105. Argument from Sign. A fact or a phenome-
non may serve as reason for belief. Signs point
to certain conclusions and indicate probability, but
are not conclusive evidence This form of argument
should not be confused with argument from cause
and effect, for the fact or phenomenon, though ac-
cepted as a sign of a certain conclusion, is in no
sense a cause of that conclusion. A rainbow at night
ARGUMENTATION 193
is a sign of clearing weather ; it is not a proof of it
nor is it in any way a cause of fair weather.
io6. Argument from Analogy. Analogy is a fourth
method of argument. It is a method of reasoning
hased on the resemblances between two cases or ob-
jects. Because the cases resemble each other in some
respects, the inference is drawn that they are alike
in further respects. In establishing a point by this
means, care must be taken that the cases resemble
each other in all features essential to the point. The
parallelism must be exact and true in the vital par-
ticulars, else the whole conclusion breaks down. The
force of analogy varies with the number and exact-
ness of the resemblances. Its usefulness lies not in
its proof, which is often doubtful, but in its power
to make a point clear and impressive. You will ob-
serve that argument from analogy is a kind of argu-
ment from example.
Burke uses analogy in the following :
Now if the doctrines of policy contained in these preamhlesy
and the force of these examples in the Acts of Parliament, avail
anything, what can be said against applying them with regard
to America ? Are not the people of America as much English-
men as the Welsh ? • • . Are the Americans not as namerous ?
If we may trust the learned and accurate Judge Barrington's
account of North Wales, and take that as a standard to measure
the rest, there is no comparison. The people cannot amount to
above 200,000 — not a tenth part of the number in the Colonies.
Is America in rebellion ? Wales was hardly ever free from it.
Have yon attempted to govern America by penal statutes ? Yoa
made fifteen for Wales. But your legislative authority is perfect
194 mGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
with regard to America. Was it less perfect in Wales, Chester,
and Darham? But America is virtually represented. What!
does the electric force of virtual representation more easily pass
over the Atlantic than pervade Wales, which lies in your neigh-
borhood, or than Chester and Durham, surrounded by abun-
dance of representation that is actual and palpable ? But, Sir,
your ancestors thought this sort of virtual representation, how-
ever ample, to be totally insufficient for the freedom of the
inhabitants of territories that are so near, and comparatively
80 inconsiderable. How then can I think it sufficient for those
which are infinitely greater, and infinitely more remote ?
Burke concludes^ that since the cases of Wales
and the Colonies are parallel^ the method of bring-
ing about peace in Wales, if applied to America,
vnUl result in parallel peaceful conditions.
107. Argument by a Number of Methods. For
a convincing argument one method may be insuffi-
cient; a combination of methods may be necessary.
Select those which best suit the case in hand, but do
not disregard the possibilities of the others.
108. Tests of Aigament. In the presentation of
evidence, ask yourself if it is consistent throughout.
Test arguments from cause to effect to discover
(1) whether or not the causes were adequate to
produce the effect, (2) whether the causes were in
any way interfered with.
Inquire of arguments from effect back to cause
(1) whether the causes were adequate to have pro-
duced the existing effect, (2) whether all other
possible causes have been so conclusively eliminated
ARGUMENTATION 195
that you are reasonably sure the one in question was
the ruling factor.
In argument from resemblances and analogy, ex-
amine the resemblances to find out whether they
are pertinent and vital to the point.
In the use of advantages and disadvantages, be
sure that viewed from both sides of the argument
the advantages remain advantages, and the disad-
vantages remain disadvantages.
Exercise 80
1. Bring to class an example of argument from cause
and one of argument from effect.
2. What is the analogy back of the following proverbs ?
(a) Don't count your chickens before they are hatched.
(b) Don't cross the bridge before you come to it.
(c) Make hay while the sun shines.
(d) There is no gathering the rose without being pridked by
the thorn.
8. From the parables of the Bible find an example of
argument from analogy.
4. What is Rosalind's conclusion concerning Orlando
in the following? What constitutes her proof? Is her
conclusion established ? Give reasons. Analyze her reason-
ing.
A lean cheek, which you have not, a blue eye and sunken, which
you have not, an unquestioiteble spirit, which you have not, a
beard neglected, which you have not ; but I pardon you for that,
for simply your having in beard is a younger brother's revenue ;
then your hose should be ungartered, your bonnet unhanded,
your sleeyes unbuttoned, your shoe untied, and everything about
196 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
you demonstrating a careless desolation ; but jon are no sach
man ; joa are rather point-device in your accoatrements, as lov-
ing yourself than seeming the lover of any other.
5. Point out the examples of argument from cause or
effect found in the selections quoted in this chapter.
6. What is the force of Burke's argument in the fol-
lowing? '
It [Lord North's plan for dealing with the Colonies] is a
mere project. It is a thing new ; unheard of ; supported by no
experience ; justified by no analogy ; without example of our
ancestors, or root in the constitution. It is neither regular par-
liamentary taxation nor colony grant.
7. Write a paragraph of a priori reasoning for op
against one of the following :
(a) The — — - Company will fail.
(b) This class will make its mark in the world.
(e) This city will build a new high school building.
8. Write an a posteriori argument on one of the follow-
ing:
(a) This room has been broken into during the night.
(b) This farm is deserted.
(c) This part of the city was once the best section.
9. What is the line of reasoning in the following?
Only I say
Things have been strangely borne. The gracious Duncan
Was pitied of Macbeth : marry, he was dead ;
And the right-valiant Banquo walked too late ;
Whom, you may say, if 't please you, Fleance killed,
For Fleance fled.
Shakesfeabe: Macbeth.
ARGUMENTATION 197
XOQ. Inductive Reasoning. Argument has for
its basis two kinds of reasoning, inductive and de-
ductive.
Inductivey from the Latin in (to, toward) and
ducere (to lead), means leading toward. Hence
inductive argument leads toward the establishment
of some truth, from the particular to the general,
from definite facts to general truths,, from specific
instances to a law or principle. It reaches its con-
clusion through experience. The scientist, for ex-
ample, in establishing a law or principle first makes
his investigations, from which he derives a number
of facts. These, grouped and classified, all point to
a general conclusion or principle.
In the example of the use of specific instances
under § 103, Curtis by inductive reasoning reaches
his conclusion that this party spirit ^^ denies the
patriotism of its opponents." He makes certain ob-
servations, noting instances of the denial of patriot-
ism, first in France, then in other countries, until he
concludes that ^^ history is lurid with the wasting
fires of this madness.'' He then finds instances of
the same condition in the United States, mentioning
the Federalists, the newspapers in speaking of such
men even as Washington, Jefferson, and Adams,
and the New England pulpit. From these individual
cases he points to a general truth.
The wider the observations and the more specific
instances there are, the better established is the con-
clusion. There is always the danger, in this form of
198 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
reasonings that the tnitfa is not aheolotety estaln
Kshed^ that only sufficient cases haye been observed
to establish its prohabUity. Having noted, for in-
stance, that on several occasions when there was no
dew in the morning it had rained before night, yon
establish what for yon constitutes a truth : that no
dew in the morning means rain before night. There
is the possibility always that on this particular day
it may not rain, even though the conditions are such
as accompany the absence of dew and have preceded
rain in the other cases. The chances are, however,
that the particular instance will follow the rest of its
kind, unless there exist new conditions, unobserved,
which tend to counteract the conditions observed,
or to exclude the particular instance from the class
about which a generalization was inferred. ^
There is (1) the kind of inductive reasoning which
examines all the particulars of a class before a gen-
eralization is reached, known as perfect induction,
and (2) the kind which reaches a generalization
while some particulars remain unexamined. The use
of perfect induction is limited, because there are
few cases where all the particulars of a class are ac-
cessible even if time permitted their examination.
In inductive argument the conclusion is stated
first. This is the reversal of the mental process, but
in presenting the argument, the recital of individual
instances before the generalization would prove
tedious and might thus fail to convince.
Note the following :
ARGUMENTATION 199
Although wonns cannot be said to possess the power of
vision, their sensitiveness to light enables them to distinguish
between day and night ; and they thus escape extreme danger
from the many diurnal animals which prey on them. Their
withdrawal into their burrows during the day appears, however,
to have become an habitual action; for worms kept in pots
covered by glass-plates, over which sheets of black paper were
spread, and placed before a north-east window, remained during
the day-time in their burrows and came out every night ; and
they continued thus to act for a week. No doubt a little light
may have entered between the sheets of glass and the blackened
paper ; but we know from the trials with coloured glass, that
worms are indifferent to a small amount of light.
Worms appear to be less sensitive to moderate radiant heat
than to a bright light. I judge of this from having held at differ-
ent times a poker heated to dull redness near some worms, at a
distance which caused a very sensible degree of warmth in my
hand. One of them took no notice ; a second withdrew into its
burrow, but not quickly; the third and fourth much more
quickly, and the fifth as quickly as possible. The light from a
candle, concentrated by a lens and passing through a sheet of
glass which would intercept most of the heat-rays, generally
caused a much more rapid retreat than did the heated poker.
Worms are sensitive to a low temperature, as may be inferred
from their not coming out of their burrows during a frost
Dabwin : Vegetable Mould and Earthworms.
1 10. Deductive Reasoning. The second form of
reasoning is the deductive. This reverses the order
of the inductive and proceeds from the generaliza-
tion to the specific case; it applies a general princi-
ple or established truth to the particular case under
discussion. You saw that inductive argument draws
200 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
an inference about a whole class of objects, all of
which have not been examined. Having attended
several Tale-Princeton football games and found
them interesting, yon generalize and infer that all
Tale-Princeton games are interesting. Dednctive
reasoning starts with this generalization about the
class (Tale-Princeton games) and argues that the
coming game will be interesting. The thought pro-
cess is:
All Yale-Princetoii games are interestiiig.
This is a Yale-Princeton game.
It will be interesting.
Deductive reasoning is convincing; for if the gen-
eral conclusion is true about a whole class of objects,
and the particular object can be proved to belong to
that class, the conclusion in regard to the object
named must be accepted. It is deductive reasoning
which infers an effect from adequate cause, a deed
from adequate motives.
III. The Syllogism. The lo^cal form in which
deductive argument is stated is called a syllogism.
It consists of three parts: a major premise which
makes a general statement about a class of objects;
a minor premise which shows that a particular ob-
ject, or a smaller group, belongs to the general class
mentioned in the major premise; a concZt/8ton which
affirms that what is true of the general class as
stated in the major premise is true of the particular
object or group in the minor premise. The follow-
ing is an example:
ARGUMENTATION 201
Major premise : All yonng people need outdoor exercise.
Minor premise : High school pupils are young people.
Conclusion: High school pupils need outdoor exercise.
112. The Enfhymeme. Very few arguments are
actually expressed in complete syllogistic form, ex-
cept to show a fault in reasoning. One premise or
the conclusion may be omitted when it is obvious
enough to be taken for granted. A syllogism with
one premise omitted is called an enthymeme. The
reasoner, however, to be effective and clear in his
argument, must keep the complete syllogistic form
in mind.
113. Tests and Refutation of the Syllogism. In
testing deductive argument, the syllogism should be
examined to determine whether it is properly con-
structed. (1) Be sure that the minor premise is a par-
ticular case under the generalization laid down by
the major premise. (2) Determine whether the syllo-
gism has three terms and three only, and whether
these are placed thus: a major term forming the
predicate of the conclusion; a minor term forming
the subject of the conclusion ; and a middle term
occurring in both premises but not in the conclu-
sion. For example, in the syllogism given in § 111
the terms are
Major term : outdoor exercise.
Minor term : high school pupils.
Middle term: young people.
To refute deductive argument, the proper method
is to show (1) of the major premise of the syllogism^
202 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
that the principle is not general ; (2) of the minor
premise^ that the particular fact or group is not
within the generalization of the major premise;
(3) that the conclusion does not logically follow.
Note Burke's method of refuting the argument
for force. Burke says :
America, gentlemen say, is a noble object. It is an object
worth fightmg for. Certainly it is, if fighting a people be the
best way of gaining them.
The syllogism underlying his opponent's argument
is this:
Major premise : Valaable colonies are best gained by force.
Minor premise : The American colonies are valaable.
Conclusion : The American colonies are best gained by force.
Burke does not accept the major premise. He
shows that force is not the best method, by proving
it temporary, uncertain, and without precedent, and
that it impairs the object.
Exercise 81
1. What is wrong with the reasoning of the blind man
in the following?
The Fifth, who chanced to touch the ear.
Said, ^E'en the blindest man
Can tell what this resembles most:
Deny the fact who can,
This marvel of an elephant
Is veiy like a fan ! '
Saxe: The Blind Men and tJie Elephant.
ARGtJMENTATION 203
2. Bring to class an example of inductive argument and
one of deductive argument.
8. From the example of deductive argument you found
for Ex. 2, write out one syllogistic form. Are there any
examples of the enthymeme in the argument ? The words
yjw, therefore^ and because introduce enthymemes.
4. Construct syllogisms from the following :
(a) He must be a good student, for he wears a Phi Beta
Kappa key.
(p) This apple is sour : it is green and hard.
(c) It will rain to-day, for the sky is overcast and cloaded.
(d) This pupil should drop a subject. His marks were all low
last month.
6. Test the syllogisms you wrote in Ex. 4. Can any of
them be refuted ? Prove that they are correct in form.
6. Make a list of five universal propositions which
would hold true under all circumstances.
7. Write an argumentative paragraph proving one of
the following, and explain what form of reasoning you
have used.
(a) The possession of riches is detrimental to a young man.
(b) Trades unions aid the cause of labor.
(c) '^ George Eliot's characters are substantial living people."
(d) Intercollegiate athletic contests are good advertisements
for colleges.
(e) Unselfish parents bring up their children to be selfish.
8. Analyze the following orally. Prepare to state the
syllogistic forms, and to show method of refutation.
The Fallacy of the Balance of Trade
Mr. Chairman, I will now proceed to say a few words upon
a topic, but for the introduction of which into this debate, I
204 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
should not have given the Committee, on this occasion, the
tronhle of hearing me. Some days ago — I believe it was when
we were settling the controversy between the oil merchants and
the tallow-chandlers — the balance of trade made its appearance
in debate, and I must confess, sir, that I spoke of it, or rather
spoke to it, somewhat freely and irreverently. I believe I used
the hard names which have been imputed to me ; and I did it
simply for the purpose of laying the spectre and driving it back
to its tomb. Certainly sir, when I called the old notion on this
sabject nonsense, I did not suppose that I should offend any
one, unless the dead should happen to hear me. All the living
generation, I took it for granted, would think the term very
properly applied. In this, however, I was mistaken. The dead
and the living rise up together to call me to account, and I
must defend myself as well as I am able.
Let us inquire, then, sir, what is meant by an unfavorable bal*
ance of trade, and what the argument is, drawn from that source.
By an unfavorable balance of trade, I understand, is meant that
state of things in which importation exceeds exportation. To ap-
ply it to our own case, if the value of goods imported exceed the
value of those exported, then the balance of trade is said to be
against us, inasmuch as we have run in debt to the amount of this
difference. Therefore it is said that if a nation continue long in a
commerce like this, it must be rendered absolutely bankrupt. It
is in the condition of a man that buys more than h^ sells ; and
how can such a traffic be maintained without ruin .' Now, sir,
the whole fallacy of this argument consists in supposing that,
whenever the value of imports exceeds that of exports, a debt
is necessarily created to the extent of the difference ; whereas,
ordinarily, the import is no more than the result of the export,
augmented in value by the labor of transportation. The excess
of imports over exports, in truth, usually shows the gains, not
the losses, of trade ; or, in a country that not only buys and
AKGUMENTATION 205
sells goods, bat employs ships in carrying goods also, it shows
the profits of commerce and the earnings of navigation. Nothing
is more certain than that in the usual course of things, and tak-
ing a series of years together, the value of our imports is the
aggregate of our exports and our freights. If the value of com-
modities imported in a given case did not exceed the value of
the outward cargo, with which they were purchased, then it
would be clear to every man's common sense that the voyage
had not been profitable. If such commodities fell far short in
value of the cost of the outward cargo, then the voyage would be a
very losing one ; and yet it would present exactly that state of
things which, according to the notion of a balance of trade, can
alone indicate a prosperous commerce. On the other hand, if
ihe return cargo were found to be worth much more than iho
outward cargo, while the merchant, having paid for the goods
exported, and all the expenses of the voyage, finds a handsome
sum yet in his hands which he calls profits, the balance of trade
is still against him, and, wliatever he may think of it, he is in a
very bad way. Although one individual or all individuals gain,
the nation loses ; while all its citizens grow rich, the country-
grows poor. This is the doctrine '-f the balance o** trade. Allow
me, sir, to give an instance tending to show how unaccountably
individuals deceive themselves and imagine themselves to be
somewhat rapidly mending their condition, while they ought to
be persuaded that, by that infallible standard, the balance of
trade, they are on the high road to ruin. Some years ago, in
better times than the present, a ship left one of the towns of
New England with 70,000 specie dollars. She proceeded to
Mocha, on the Red Sea, and there laid out these dollars in
coffee, drugs, spices, and other articles procured in that market.
With this new cargo she proceeded to Europe ; two thirds of it
were sold in Holland for $130,000, which the ship brought
back and placed in the same bank from the vaults of which she
206 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
had taken her original outfit. The other third was sent to the
ports of the Mediterranean, and prodnced a return of $25,000
in specie and $15,000 in Italian merchandise. These sums to-
gether make $170,000 imported, which is $100,000 more than
was exported, and u therefore proof of an unfavorable balance
of trade, to that amount, in this adventure. We should find no
great difficulty, sir, in paying o£E our balances if this were the
nature of them all.
Websteb : Speech on the Tariff, April 1 and 2, 1824.
9. Make a list of the points Burke refutes in the Speech
on Conciliation. In each case, what is his method of at-
tack and what are the points in refutation ?
10. Criticise these arguments :
{a) The liquor traffic produces these evils ; prohibit the liquor
traffic and you abolish the evils.
(p) Slavery is a crime ; therefor we demand the immediate
and unconditional abolition of slavery.
(c) Private property producescovetousness, industrial oppres-
sion, frauds, robberies, gambling; therefore abolish pri-
vate property.
11. Prepare to discuss in class the arguments set forth
by the people gathered at the " Bainbow " in Chapter vi
of Silas Mamer,
12. Bring to class the syllogism of an argument that
you have recently heard and are able to refute ; one in
which the premises are so strong that you are unable to
detect a flaw.
114. Questions of Fact, Theory, and Policy. Ques-
tions for argument are of three kinds: those of fact,
theory, and policy.
1. Questions of fact aim to prove that a certain
thing did or did not occur. In such questions it is
ARGUMENTATION 207
not known whether or not the disputed event has
taken place. The Bacon-Shakespeare question is one
of this kind.
2. Questions of theory are those which deal with
the establishment of scientific laws, and with the
application of statutes. These are technical in nature
and have little to do with every-day affairs. Scien-
tific truths are first matters of theory, and are ac-
cepted as facts only after sufficient proof is adduced.
Example : Day and night are caused by the rotation of the
earth on its axis. ^
3. Questions of policy are questions of right or
expediency. They involve the determination of right
courses of action, and of the hest courses of action.
Examples:
(a) Coaching from the side lines should he prohibited in high
school athletics.
(b) The United States government should subsidize her mer-
chant marine.
Note. By what method of argument could each of these
kinds of question best be proved ?
115. Order of Arguments. It is desirahle in argu-
ment, as in other forms of discourse, to arrange the
material or proof in the order of climax so far as
possible. This does not mean, however, that the
weakest point should come first. The first argument
should be one of the strongest and simplest, in order
to secure interest and a ready understanding.
After the first point, arrange the material in the
208 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
order of climax, reserving for the last the strongest
available argument, to make and fix the final im-
pression. Be sure that each argument follows logi-
cally from those that precede, for this is a help both
to reason and to memory. Following this principle
of sequence, you should answer objections at the
points where they would naturally arise in the minds
of your audience.
Make use of frequent summaries, especially in oral
argument, for they are useful (1) in insuring the
proper emphasis of important points; (2) in holding
th& attention of the audience; (3) in assisting the un-
derstanding. Burke makes frequent recapitulation
80 that his points may not be lost sight of. Note the
following summarizing paragraph from the Speech
on Conciliation:
Then, Sir, from these six capital sources : — of descent ; of form
of government ; of religion in the Northern Provinces ; of man-
ners in the Southern ; of education ; of remoteness of situation
from the first mover of government — from all these causes a
fierce spirit of liberty has grown up.
ii6. The Parts of an Argument. Argument con-
sists of three parts: the introduction, the body, and
the conclusion.
The introduction consists of preliminary matter
and should therefore be as brief as is consistent with
a clear understanding of the question. Here you
should state the subject of the argument, or the
proposition, the point of view, and your plan of
procedure, and give any explanatory matter or defi-
ARGUMENTATION 209
nition of terms that may be necessary to make clear
the proposition. Bear in mind that the purpose of
the introduction is to prepare the way for the ques-
tion by giving necessary information and eliminating
all side issues, to arouse interest, and to gain the
good-will of the audience.
The hody^ or brief proper, contains all the proof, di-
rect and indirect, stated in an orderly and logical way
and as convincingly as possible. It contains also argu-
ments in refutation. In arranging the proof (see again
§ 115), care must be taken that there is no break in
the thought as you pass from point to point.
The conclusion is characterized by brevity and
clearness, and consists of a short summary of the
points established together with a final statement of
the proposition as proved.
117. The Brief. A brief is the outline of an argu-
ment. After all material for your argument has been
collected, if your argument, even though of the sim-
plest kind, is to be well ordered, a written brief is
necessary. In making the brief, you will sift your
material and arrange it in orderly form so that the
logical relationship between points is evident at a
glance. Thus you can test your argument for clear-
ness, soundness, and completeness. A brief should
consist of the following points in outline:
I. Intboduction.
1. History of the question.
2. Explanations and definition of any terms the meaning
of which might not be clear.
210 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
3. Statement of any facts admitted by both sides.
4. Statement of the point at issue.
n. BbiefPbofes.
1. Statement of the proposition.
2. Statement of the points supporting the proposition.
8. The evidence or proof supporting each point.
4. Statement of the points which can be ref uted, together
with the proof.
m. Conclusion.
1. Short summary of the points established.
2. Final statement of the conclusion reached.
The above oatline gives the substance of a brief.
As to the arrangement of the brief , observe the fol-
lowing points :
1. State all points, main or supporting, in complete
sentences.
2. At the beginning of the brief proper, follow the
proposition with the word because^ which thus introduces
each main heading supporting the truth of the proposi-
tion; and introduce each subheading hjjbr, to show that
it bears the relation of proof to the heading to which it is
subordinate. The relation between subheadings and their
headings should never be expressed by Aence or therefore^
for either word would invert the proper relationship and
put the main statements in subordinate position. State
each point in conclusion form.
8. Each heading or subheading should state a single
point.
4. Points refuting objections to the proposition should
be briefed as main points in proof ; those refuting objec-
tions to details of proof should be taken up where they
arise.
AEGXJMENTATION 211
5. Place no proof in the introduction.
6. Let the conclusion be a mere summary of the steps
in proof.
The principles stated above are illustrated in the
following specimen brief :
Resolved : That the President of the United States should be
elected by a direct vote of the people.
Intboduction"
I. The question is one that has been much discussed and de-
bated in connection with contested decisions of electors.
II. The plans to be explained are the present plan and the
proposed plan.
A. By the present plan the people do not cast their vote
for the presidential candidate directly, but vote for del-
egates who constitute the electors, of whom each state
has a definite number according to its population.
These electors commonly vote as instructed but are not
compelled to do so. They cast ballots fo the candidate
and elect the President for the people. That party in
each state getting the greatest popular vote, receives all
the electoral votes ; the loser has none.
B. By the proposed plan the people would cast votes di-
rectly for the presidential nominee. The greatest pop-
ular vote would win.
III. The main issues, since the question is one of policy, are :
A. Is the present plan seriously defective ?
B. Will the proposed plan remedy the defects?
IV. The plan of argument is to prove
A. That the present system is seriously defective.
B. That the proposed plan will remedy the defects.
212 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
Brief Proper
The President of the United States should be elected by a
direct vote of the people ; becaase
I. The present electoral system is seriously defective ; for
A. It is not in accordance with the fundamental principles
of liberty ; for
1. Free government and liberty demand that the will
of the people be followed, but the electors may' or
may not follow the will of the people.
B. The results of the electoral vote may be contrary to the
popular vote ; for
1. Samuel Tilden received the greatest popular vote,
but Hayes was elected by the electors.
C It is unfair to the minority party ; for
1. The minority party receives no credit for the votes
cast For example, suppose in New York State
there are 700,000 RepubUcan votes and 600,000
Democratic. The Republican party receives 39
electoral votes ; the Democratic party none. Sup*
pose again New Tork State goes Republican by
26,000 votes, thereby giving 39 Republican electo-
ral votes, while Georgia goes Democratic by 60,000
votes, thereby giving 13 electoral votes. There
would be a popular Democratic majority of 25,000,
but an electoral Republican majority of 26.
D. It limits the campaign to the larger states ; for
1. As shown by the above example the larger states,
like New York, hold the balance of power.
2. Party leaders naturally give chief attention to the
states with the greatest electoral vote ; for
(a) It is the electoral votes which count in the
election of the President.
n. Popular election would remove existing evils ; for
AEGUMENTATION 213
A* It would be in accordance with the fundamental prin-
ciples of liberty ; for
1. It places the choice and responsibility in the hands
of the people directly.
B. It will do away with the possibility that the popular
vote may be foiled ; for
1. The vote would be cast directly.
C* It would be fair to the minority ; for
1. Every vote would count in the election.
D. The campaign would not be limited to the larger
states; for
1. The object would be to secure popular votes, not
electoral votes ; and a vote in Georgia would count
the same as a vote in New York.
in. Refutation. The argument that the people are not compe-
tent to vote for the President does not hold ; for
A. It is obsolete, applying to conditions as they existed in
1780, not in 1912.
B. It is contrary to the whole principle of democratic gov-
ernment*
Conclusion
L Therefore, since the present system has been shown to be
seriously defective in that
A. It is not in accordance with the fundamental princi-
ples of liberty ;
B. The results of the electoral vote may be contrary to
the popular vote ;
C. It is unfair to the minority party ; and
D. It limits the campaign to the larger states ; and since the
proposed system would remove these defects, the Presi-
dent of the United States should be elected by popular
vote.
214 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
EXEBCISE 32
1. Classify all propositions g^ven in the Exeicises of
this chapter according to the classification discussed in
§ 114, p. 206.
2. Add any further points you can to the proof given in
the specimen brief in § 117. Write the brief for the nega-
tive.
3. Give orally arguments for or against the following,
reciting from a brief which you have prepared. Criticise
the oral recitations for content and arrangement of argu-
ments.
(a) Examinations are a fair test of scholarship.
(b) Capital punishment shotdd be abolished.
(e) The high school coarse of study should be determined by
the demands for entrance to college.
(d) That tree was struck by lightning.
4. What method of proof did you nse in each of the
arguments in Ex. 3 ? (See again §§ 102-107, pp. 187-
194.)
5. Write the complete brief for one of the following
questions, and the brief for the introduction of the other
two:
{a) Resolved that the United States should neutralize the
Panama Canal.
(b) Women should have the same suffrage rights as men.
(e) United States senators should be elected by the people.
6. Write the argument which seems strongest to you for
or against one of the propositions in Ex. 5.
ii8. Persuasion. After the brief has been worked
out and you feel sure that your proofs are conclu-
sive and arranged in the best way to insure agree-
ARGUMENTATION 216
ment^ there still remains, in questions of policy
especially, one matter for careful consideration.
That is how to prepare your audience, not only to
agree with you, but to be moved to act in accord-
ance with your wishes. This involves persuasion.
Argument appeals to the intellect ; persuasion to the
feelings and emotions. In questions involving hu-
man conduct, you must aim for something more than
the mere intellectual acceptance of your premises;
for men are constantly accepting principles which
they do not carry «ut in action. Therefore your
appeal must be directed to arouse the feelings and
emotions of your audience so that they will put
their convictions into action.
Persuasion and argument go together, the one
preparing the way for the other. With an audience
indifferent or hostile either to speaker or to subject,
the function of persuasion is first to make an appeal
that will win sympathy at the outset. Then is there
opportunity for conviction. The second function of
persuasion is to retain this sympathy, and to stimu-
late interest throughout the presentation of proof*
Tn the third place, through persuasion the speaker
makes a final appeal which will leave a compelling
influence, an impulse toward a certain line of action.
It should be remembered that persuasion never
means creating an unfair prejudice toward speaker or
subject or against opponent. Creating an unfair preju-
dice is not a legitimate means of convincing; it is not
honest, and, as Burke says, ^^ Plain good intention,
216 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
vhich is as easily discovered at the first view as
fraud is surely detected at last^ is, let me say, of no
mean force in the government of mankind." Genu-
ine conviction in a worthy cause is in itself persua-
sive.
Examine the following :
(1) It is with reluctance that I rise to express a disapproba-
tion of any one article of the plan, for which we are so much
obliged to the honorable gentleman who laid it before us. From
its first reading I have borne a good will to it, and in general
wished it success. In this particular of salaries to the executive
branch, I happen to differ ; and as mj opinion may appear new
and chimerical, it is only from a persuasion that it is right, and
from a sense of duty, that I hazard it. The committee will judge
of my reasons when they have heard them, and their judgment
may possibly change mine. I think I see inconveniences in the
appointment of salaries; I see none in refusing them, but, on the
contrary, great advantages.
Franklin : Before tJie ComtitutiondL Convention.
(2) Mr. President, I know how imperfectly I have stated
this argument. I know how feeble is a single voice amid this
din and tempest, this delirium of empire. It may be that the
battle for this day is lost. But I have an assured faith in the
future. I have an assured faith in justice and the love of liberty
of the American people. The stars in their courses fight for free-
dom. The Buler of the heavens is on that side. If the battle to-
day go against it, I appeal to another day, not distant and sure
to come. I appeal from the clapping of hands and the stamping
of feet and the brawling and the shouting to the quiet chambers
where the Fathers gathered in Philadelphia. I appeal from the
spirit of trade to the spirit of liberty. I appeal from the Empire
ARGUMENTATION 217
to ihe Bepublic. I appeal from the millionaire, and the boss, and
the wire-puUer, and the manager, to the statesman of the elder
time, in whose eyes a guinea never glistened, who lived and died
poor, and who left to his children and to his countrymen a good
name, far better than riches. I appeal from the Present, bloated
with material prosperity, drunk with the lust of empire, to an-
other and a better age. I appeal from the Present to the Future
and to the Past.
Senator Hoar: Philippine Qtiestion.
iiQ. Debate. In preparing for a debate several
principles should be kept in mind.
1. Choose a debatable subject, one which has two fairly
plausible sides, that will give each group of speakers ap*
proximately the same chance to apply the principles of
argumentation. The best subjects are those of policy or
expediency, for they test both the reasoning and the per-
suasive powers of the debaters. Avoid questions for which
a final conclusion is practically an impossibility; those
which give opportunity for little more than discussion over
definitions ; and those that are not so carefully narrowed
as to inyolve only a single subject — otherwise the issues
are manifold and the arguments may not meet. Finally,
choose a subject that has interest.
2. Word the question so carefully that it will have the
same meaning to both sides ; otherwise the two sides will
have different questions in mind and the arguments will
not meet. It is well for the debaters to hold a preliminary
meeting for the purpose of making sure that both sides
have a common understanding of the question.
8. Take, if possible, the side of the question you believe
to be right. Sincerity in itself is a strong argument. If
you have strong convictions either way, keep in mind that
218 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
the purpose of debate is to arrive at the truth, to weigh
and test arguments. Your attitude should not be preju-
diced ; you should be willing to change your opinion if the
arguments indicate that the other side is in the right.
4. In collecting material, remember that much assist-
ance can be gained by talking freely with others about the
particular proposition you are to debate, and the general
subject to which it belongs. This assistance is twofold. In
the first place, you hear the opinions of others and test
your own ; and in the second place, many articles in news-
papers, books, and magazines will be suggested for your
reading. Learn to use the various indexes to periodicals
in the library, and read widely on both sides of the ques
tion. Prepare to debate the particular issue and nothing
else. Work out in detail the strong arguments on your
side of the question. Consider what arguments may be
offered against you; be prepared to withstand attack and
to know the weak points in the arguments of the oppo-
nent's side.
5. After you have all your material together, and have
grouped and sifted your notes until the main issues of the
question are apparent, prepare a careful brief ; and from
this brief, practice delivering the argument.
6. Since debate requires team work and division of
labor, the question must be carefully divided so that each
person has his own particular part. In general, the firs
speaker on each side defines the issues, states his positioi
outlines the course of the argument for his side, preparing
the way for the arguments of his colleagues, and then
proceeds, if time allows, to the support of the main ques-
tion. The second speaker on each side carries on the
argument, bringing out the particular points he is to estab-
lish. The third speaker presents the final points which
ARGUMENTATION 219
olincli the argnment. Each speaker should not only be
thoroughly familiar with the special phases of the subject
treated by his colleagues, but should have also detailed
and accurate knowledge of his own particular division of
the subject.
7. In rebuttal or refutation, the leader of the negative
usually speaks first and the leader of the affirmative last.
Each should be alert and quick to point out weaknesses
in his opponents' arguments, and ready to defend his own
side of the question in whatever points it is attacked.
Finally, the last speaker must ^ ring the debate to a close
by summarizing th arguments anl definitely stating what
has been proved from his point of view*
8. In the debate remember that the attitude between
opponents should be courteous ; resist any temptation to be
sharp or sarcastic. A calm, earnest delivery, free from
oratorical flights, is the most convincing.
9. Seproduce exactly, in restating the arguments of
opponents. This is a difficult thing to do and requires
practice, but the effort is quite worth while.
10. Quotations should be accurate, and should be perti-
nent and applied fairly. Avoid long quotations, for they
break the continuity of the argument.
11. Memorize the brief, not the arguments. The lan-
guage used in the debate should be extemporaneous, for
an argument delivered in memorized language will lack
the force and spontaneity which result from the inspiration
of the hour.
EXEBCISE 33
1. Study the speeches of Brutus and Antony as indi-
cated on page 220. Which is argumentative ? Which per-
220 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
suasive ? Give your reasons. Point out the arguments in
the one and the elements of persuasion in the other.
Brnttis. Romans, countrymen, and lovers ! hear me for my
cause ; and be silent that you may hear :
I do entreat you, not a man depart.
Save I alone, till Antony have spoke.
Antony. Friends, Romans, countiymen, lend me your ears;
I come to bury Ciesar, not to praise him.
Now let it work ! Mischief, thou art afoot,
Take thou what course thou wilt. — Jtdius CcBsaVy m, iL
2. Prepare a brief for a class debate on one of the fol-
lowing :
(a) Church property should be exempt from taxation.
(p) The United States should grant ^ independence to the
Philippines before 19 — .
(e) Secret societies should not be permitted in high schools.
((2) Labor organizations promote the best interests of work-
ingmen.
8. Bring to class a selection found in your reading con-
taining elements of persuasion. Discuss its effectiveness.
4. Write an appeal to a high school audience to support
the athletic association.
5. Bring to class two good propositions on questions of
general interest. State, in general, what the main argu-
ments are for and against each question, and be prepared
to give general references where the subject may be looked
up.
6. Point out examples of persuasion in Burke's Speech
on Conciliation,
ARGUMENTATION 221
7. Write the brief and prepare to give orally one sup-
porting and one opposing argument for each of the fol-
lowing:
(a) Manual training should be introduced into all high
schools.
(b) Signboard advertising should be abolished.
(e) The system of direct primary nominations is preferable
to that of nomination by caucus and convention.
(d) Voting should be made compulsory.
(e) Civics should be a required subject in all high schools.
(/) Commission government is desirable for American cities.
(g) Traveling Libraries should be sent by the state to rural
communities.
(h) Business offers better opportunities to a young man (or
woman) to-day than does a profession.
(i) The purchasing of a certain tract of land for a public
park.
(j) The establishment of a public bath house.
(k) American coastwise vessels should be exempt from pay-
ing tolls through the Panama Canal.
8. Write an article for a local newspaper setting forth
your arguments for or against one or more of these
subjects :
(a) The municipal ownership of the waterworks system of
your city or village.
(b) The establishment of public playgrounds.
(c) The building of state highways.
(d) The teaching of sewing in the public schools.
(e) The levying by Congress of an income tax for raising
revenue.
(/) The membership of every high school student in a village
(town or city) improvement society*
222 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
9. Write a carefully worded proposition and a complete
brief for one of the topics in Ex. 8.
10. Arrange the arguments in the brief written in Ex. 9,
as you think they should be distributed among three de-
baters.
11. Choosing one of the following subjects, develop the
chief arguments on either side :
(a) The novel is more effective than the essay in depicting
manners and customs.
(b) The state should provide work for the unemployed.
(c) Free lunches should be supplied to aU school children.
(d) The tenure of office of the President of the United
States should be limited to a single term of six years.
(e) The United States should pay higher salaries in its
diplomatic service*
CHAPTER Vin
WORDS
120. The English Language. Our modem English
is a composite language. The parent stocky as we
call it; was brought into England by invading tribes
from Germany, and it therefore belongs to the Ger-
manic or Teutonic group of languages. This relation-
ship is attested by the similarity of such words as
mother^ mutter; house, l^ou^; home, I)ctm; uncle, ox&d]
field, fe(b ; and many hundreds of others. This speech
of the invaders suffered many changes. Conquests
and further invasions have continued to produce
changes by bringing in new words, by changing
idiom and pronunciation, and by amalgamating other
languages, even down to our day.
This makes the English language peculiarly diffi-
cult because its etymology is rooted in so many
parent languages. It also enriches the language by
enlarging its stock of words and synonyms.
We first know the speech of England as a written
language in the time of King Alfred. The oldest
recorded specimens of the language we call Anglo-
Saxon. Other epochs are distinguished by such names
as Old EngUsh, Middle English, Early English. The
language now in use is called simply English.
224 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
121. The English Vocabulary: Sources. The words
in the English dictionary bear witness to much of
the history of the English-speaking people. The
story of the invasion of England is suggested by
the many words cognate with German ; the Saxon
words mark the Anglo-Saxon period ; French words^
the Norman-French invasion and conquest; while
words of Latin and Greek origin show the influence
of the Renaissance. These are only a few of the
sources from which the English language has drawn
its stock of words^ but they are the important
sources. In America, every element of a composite
population has contributed more or less to the com-
mon stock of words and has enriched the English
vocabulary.
1. Saxon Words. The main body of English
words is the contribution of the Angles and Saxons
who took possession of Britain during the fifth and
sixth centuries. Their language had acquired con-
siderable stability by the tenth century and was
used by AlEred in his Chronicle. The speech of this
period of five hundred years is to-day the basis of
our English vocabulary. Our words of the home,
domestic life, the farm, the forest, and the sea are
Saxon words ; as.
Horse, tree, chair, plow, work, ride, rain, rest, bam, father^
mother, home, friend, wife, child, husband, guest, ship, boat^
shore, storm, wreck, wave, flood.
2. French Words. When the Norman-French
conquered Britain in 1066, French became the Ian-
WORDS 225
gpiage of the court. These newcomers as a race be-
came absorbed by the English and adopted the speech
of the country ; but the official and noble class ^ long
continued the use of French. It was therefore a sign
of distinction to use French, and this resulted in a
tendency to borrow French words. There has been
a readiness at all times since the eleventh century to
borrow from the French. The tendency has been
especially marked in polite and cultivated circles.
French culture has in this way left its imprint on the
English language, giving many words to the English
vocabulary in literature, art, fashion, law, govern-
ment, society, and religion ; as,
Blame, officer, curate, mode, mortgage, palette, volume, peace,
tower, castle, prison, court, countess, courtesy, courtier, policy,
butler, pew, vestry.
Many English words of Latin origin came into
^ At Court, and in the castles of the great nobles, where the pomp
and state of a court was emulated, Norman-French was the only
language employed ; in courts of law, the pleadings and judgments
were delivered in the same tongue. In short, French was the language
of honour, of chivalry, and even of justice, while the far more manly
and expressive Anglo-Saxon was abandoned to the use of rustics and
hinds, who knew no other. Still, however, the necessary intercourse
between the lords of the soil, and those oppressed inferior beings by
whom the soil was cultivated, occasioned the gradual formation of a
dialect, compounded betwixt the French and the Anglo-Saxon, in
which they could render themselves mutually intelligible to each
other ; and from this necessity arose by degrees the structure of our
present English language, in which the speech of the victors and the
vanquished have been so happily blended together ; and which has
since been so richly improved by importations from the classical
languages, and from those spoken by the southern nations of Europe.
Scott : Ivanhoe.
226 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
English speech through the French. It is frequently
impossible to tell whether a given word came in di-
rectly from the Latin or through the French, but in
other cases the source is quite clear. Sometimes, too^
we have two iflnglish words from the same Latin
root, one coming directly from the Latin, the other
through the French. Such words are
Deception, deceive ; separate, sever ; security, surety ; yindi«
cation; vengeance; state, estate; probe, prove; spirit, esprit.
3. Latin Words. The words borrowed directly
from the Latin have come into the language mostly
through learned and literary avenues. Latin, having
long been the scholar's language, is even now mak-
ing its contributions. Sometimes the adoptions are
without change of any kind ; in other cases modifi-
cations and adaptations are made. But whether
changed or not, the words of Latin origin form a
large and important part of our daily speech. Many
words that came in as learned or even as technical
terms, have worked their way down into the word
stock of the unschooled, while a few have even ac-
quired vulgarity and slang characteristics.
(a) Latin words borrowed without change of form :
Animas, crux, modus, inferior, superior, quarto, folio, pre-
mium, bonus, maximum, minimum, data, item, recipe, inertia,
nausea, interim, finis, alibi, pabulum, nostrum, alumnus, alumna^
addendum, post mortem, vice versa.
(6) Latin words that have suffered modification :
Infer, invasion^ impious, introduce, occur, oppose, conserve-
WORDS 227
tlon,' ielatiTe« president, custodian, permit, prevent, subtract, sus-
pend, surrender, translate, transfer, regnant, revise, paternal, pro-
vide, unanimous, amiable, culpable, rustic, frigid, finish, arbitrate,
educate, legislate, complete, legacy.
(c) Latin words with slang characteristics:
Vim, bonus, bona fide, premium.
(d) Many familiar abbreviations are initial letteis
of Latin expressions or are remnants of Latin words.
Note the following :
A.B., from Artium Baccalaur ihid.yiTom ibidem (in the same
rem. place).
A.D., from Anno Domini (in i.e., from id est (that is).
the year of our Lord). lb., from libra (pound),
dr., from circa (about). M.A., from Magister Artium.
cf., from confer (compare). N.B., from nota bene (note
e.g., from exempli gratia (for well).
example) . P.S., from post scriptum (wrife>
etc., from et cetera (and the ten after).
rest). via, from via (by way of),
et al., from et alii (and others), viz., from videlicet (namely).
(e) New mechanical inventions^ processes^ or dis-
coveries are sometimes named by coining words from
Latin roots. The classical root readily yields a word
without other association and therefore is free from
ambiguity. Such words are
Linoleum, appendicitis, pendulum, equilibrator, eccentric.
4. Greek Words. Science is the gateway by which
Greek words have come into our speech. Scientists
have very often used Greek words iu naming their
228 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
discoveries and inventions. The Greek word-root,
like the Latin, is well adapted for word formation,
and a new word so formed is free from equivocation
in English. There are also Greek words in literature,
art, theology, and history; as,
Antograph, apology, aposUei analysis, autocrat, diphthong,
metaphor, monogram, telephone, syllogism, sympathy, phono-
graph, hydrostaticy demagogue, prosody, prologue, perihelion,
semaphore, election, dactyl, hectagon, icoeahedron, biography,
photograph, asphaltum.
There are instances where scientists have formed
hybrids by joining a Greek root with a Latin or
English stem. These are linguistic monstrosities ; as,
Automobile, aeroplane, aerodrome, Anglophobe, genotype.
5. Miscellaneous Sources. Other languages have
contributed their share of words. The Celtic words
are comparatively few and the Celtic influence has
apparently ceased. The Scandinavian influence never
was strong and has left very few words. Spanish has
left few traces of its contact with the English, but it
may yet give us new words through our contact with
the Spanish peoples in our insular possessions. Italian
influence has so far been confined to music and art, but
the recent large Italian immigration is likely to leave
other marks upon English in America. There has as
yet been no perceptible trace of Polish, but some
words will surely fix themselves in our speech as a
result of heavy Polish immigration. German words
came in early, as noted in § 120 above. No recent addi-
WORDS 229
tions to our stock of Gennan words are of importance.
Indian^ Chinese^ Hebrew^ and Arabic words are found
in our speech, but they have no important signifi-
cance. In fact, none of the miscellaneous contribu-
tions have materially affected the structure of our
speech. Examples follow :
Celtic : bard, bog, brogue, glen, lad, shamrock, slogan.
Scandinavian : edda, viking, valkyre, sky, wrong.
Italian: contralto, piano.
Spanish : flotilla, junta, siesta, bolero.
Polish : polka, gavotte.
Indian : hominy, moccasin, tomahawk, squaw, wampum, wig-
wam.
Chinese : tea, nankeen.
Hebrew : cherub, hallelujah, Messiah.
Arabic : algebra, alkali, elixir, sofa.
German : knapsack, landscape, stove, yacht.
Note. Any good dictionary will give the necessary informa-
tion regarding the origin of words. Thus, Webster^s Interna'
tional JHcUonary gives for the word discourse the following
explanation : (L. discurstis, a running to and fro, discourse, f r. dis-
currere, discursumj to run to and fro, to discourse ; dis-+cur'
rere, to run ; cf . F. discours.) The word has a Latin origin and
is related to the French.
The following abbreviations will be useful in following word
derivations in the dictionary :
A. S. : Anglo-Saxon, fr. : from. 6r. : Greek.
Celt.: Celtic. Fr.: French. L.: Latin.
cf . : compare. G. : Grerman. O. E. : Old English.
F. : French. Ger. : German. q. v. : which see.
230 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
EXEBCIS£ 34
1. Bead the following passages and determine which has
the largest proportion of words of Latin origin. Which
has the largest proportion of words of Anglo-Saxon origin ?
(1) Thas they discoursed together till late at night; and
after they had committed themselves to their Lord for protec-
tion, they betook themselves to rest The pilgrim they laid in
a large upper chamber whose window opened toward the sun-
rising ; the name of the chamber was Peace ; where he slept till
break of day and then awoke and sang.
Bunyan: The PUgrirrCs Progress.
(2) The heavens declare the glory of God ; and the firma-
ment sheweth his handiwork. Day unto day nttereth speech,
and night unto night sheweth knowledge. There is no speech
nor language, where their voice is not heard.
Their line is gone out through all the earth, and their words
to the end of the world. In them hath he set a tabernacle for
the sun, which is as a bridegroom coming out of his chamber,
and rejoiceth as a strong man to run a race. His going forth is
from the end of the heaven, and his circuit unto the ends of it :
and there is nothing hid from the heat thereof.
Psalms xix.
(3) Our personal identity, then, consists solely in pragmati-
cally definable particulars. Whether, apart from these verifi-
able facts, it also inheres in a spiritual principle, is a merely
curious speculation. Locke, compromiser that he was, passively
tolerated the belief in a substantial soul behind our conscious-
ness. But his successor Hume, and most empirical psycholo-
gists after him, have denied the soul, save as the name for veri-
fiable cohesions in our inner life. They redescend into the
stream of experience with it, and cash it into so much small-
WORDS 231
change value in the way of " ideas " and their peculiar connec-
tions with each other.
William James : Fragmatisnu
2. Make a list of words of Latin origin in the passage
that has the largest proportion of such words.
8. Make a list of Anglo-Saxon words in each of the
other two passages.
4. Bring to class a book or an article by a writer who
uses a large proportion of Anglo-Saxon words.
5. Read again your last composition to see whether you
used a large proportion of words of Latin, French, and
Greek origin.
122. Word Histories. As you have seen^ words have
been extensively borrowed from other languages.
Such words enrich English speech by giving variety
to its vocabulary. Each borrowed word brings with it
a new point of view, a new bit of coloring, or adds
another shade of meaning to those already in stock.
Furthermore, it brings with it an individual word-
history. The foreign associations, in oral speech as
well as in literature, give individuality and distinc-
tion to the word. Frequently the foreign origin
gives the word a content which only the knowing
can penetrate. It is therefore never safe to be satis-
fied with a single meaning. You should look into
the derivation of unfamiliar words and learn the his-
tory which probably attaches to them.
A word of foreign origin may have several char-
acteristics. It may have carried with it into its new
setting the original character from its home lan-
guage ; or it may have acquired new characteristics
232 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
as a result of its transition and adaptation ; or it
may have certain striking peculiarities because of
prefix or suffix. The most evident meaning of agony
is pain or suffering; but its relationship to the
Greek word agduy signifying struggle^ contest, gives
the added idea of fortitude in pain. Agony ^ there-
fore, implies the set teeth, the determined facial ex-
pression, the writhing body, the tense muscles. The
history of the word from its Greek setting adds
depths of meaning that were unsuspected before.
The word succinct may be roughly defined by
hrief or to the point ; but this barely touches the
surface of its full signification. One use alone
would make its value to the English language ex-
ceedingly small, whereas its Latin history opens a
wide range of meaning. The Latin word sucdnctus
reminds you of the Roman toga, a loose robe, which
was an obstruction to the free movements of the
wearer. By drawing up this toga and securing it
with the girdle, the Roman could run or jump, that
is, he could move rapidly. SucdnctuSj then, denotes
a person girt for rapid action. From this it is an
easy step to a succinct thought, a thought so con-
cisely stated that all impediments of language are
absent. With this history in mind, the English word
succinct has reaches of meaning, richness of color,
that lend great emphasis to its use. The real value
of the word rests wholly in its history.
The meaning of nag is to tease or scold. But
this is incomplete. Only when we get back to the
WORDS 233
Anglo-Sa^on nagen meaning to gnaw at do we get
tiie real force of our word. It is the picture of the
rodent gnawing and gnawing at an object until it
is worn through^ that gives us the full value of
the word we use^ and we cannot use it with feeling
unless we know its history.
In Exercise 35 there is a list of words whose history
would add much to the meaning you can now readily
give. Try to penetrate the deeper significance be-
hind each word and thereby realize the shallow con-
tent which you have had for it.
Exercise 85
1. Study the following adopted words and phrases.
Find all possible meanings in the dictionary, give as many
synonyms as you can, and trace their histories as far as
your language studies enable you to do so.
Vociferous applause, foundation, dynamite, nausea, political,
blame, ambition, biscuit, endure, invent, prevent, candidate, cent,
confide, allow, vex, suburban, convince, vulgar, school, epidemic,
urbanity, friend, aggravate, sophistry.
2. Bead again your most recent composition. Have
you used any words vaguely without full consciousness of
their meaning? Look up the history of such words and
see if you can now use them more precisely.
8. Select from your reading and bring to class a list of
ten words whose meaning was not clear to you. Deter-
mine in each case whether the history of the word will
make it clearer to you and its use more efiPective.
4. From your newspaper reading and from the oral
recitations in various subjects, collect a list of words that
you think were used incorrectly. Determine in how many
234 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
cases a knowledge of the history of the word would have
prevented its misuse.
123. Variety in the Use of Foreign Words. Since
our language contains a variety of elements in its
stock of words; it is well to command the use of
words from each source. It is a mark of cultivation
to use words from many origins. You should avoid
the use of words of one kind only. Too many Latin
words make a heavy, monotonous style. Many for-
eign words will produce an affected, pedantic diction.
Your vocabulary should therefore be so large, and
your knowledge of each word's history should be so
accurate, that the right word will occur in the right
place without apparent effort. From such a vocab-
ulary will flow a fundamental gtock of Anglo-Saxon
words, enriched by words of Latin origin, alternating
with those of Greek or French or other origin, and
giving pleasant yariety to your speech.
124. Value of a Large Vocabulary. The person who
has command of a small vocabulary only, even if it
is comparatively varied, is likely to become tiresome
to his audience. He will use the same adjectives to
describe widely different objects. He will use the
same phrase or expression for things demanding dif-
ferent degrees of emphasis. His narrow range of
words indicates a small range of ideas and has a
tendency to curb his freedom of thought. A large
vocabulary, on the other hand, indicates a wealth of
ideas and induces freedom of thought and vivid
imagination, since words are wings for thoughts to
WORDS 235
ride on. A large stock of words is necessary for tlie
expression of a variety of thoughts and feelings^ and
for exact distinctions between fine shades of mean-
ing. This, again, demands great accuracy in the use
of words and intimate familiarity with the many
meanings of each word.
125. Learned and Common Words. Every one has
two kinds of words in his vocabulary. One kind^
his common words, he uses in familiar, daily speech^
in conversations, and in informal communications
of every sort. Much of this word stock is native,
matching the ideas and experiences of youth, and
is acquired outside of books. But some learned or
bookish words also appear in every vocabulary. The
fashion in words changes, sometimes making a
learned word into a common one. Popularity and
frequency of use, rather than origin, determine this
change. A word is common when the average per-
son uses it without embarrassment.
The learned word comes from reading serious
books, from hearing lectures on learned subjects,
and from conversation with educated persons. Scien-
tific terms, literary expressions, scholarly sayings,
profound thoughts, all imply words that are used
only during periods of serious intellectual work.
They are likely to be largely of Latin origin. The
difference between common and learned words ap-
pears in the following list of synonyms. Tou can
readily supply others.
236 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
Common
Learned
Comnum
Learned
brave
valiant
food
sustenance
fat
corpulent
lively
vivacious
height
altitude
wagon
vehicle
teach
instruct
building
edifice
piece
fragment
dull
tedious
1. Learned Words Changed to Common Words.
Some words that were once learned now form part
of the daily speech ; as^
Memorial, arbitration, corporation, contradict, indictment, con-
servation, prosecutor, executor, inheritance.
2. Specialized Vocabularies. Every profession,
every science, every art, every trade, has a vocabu-
lary peculiar to itself. These trade or technical words
are appropriate in their place, but their meaning is
restricted, their use limited. Persons outside of the
given profession or trade are usually ignorant of
their meaning and have no occasion to use them.
Some scientific discussions have to be ^^ translated "
into popular language before they are intelligible to
the average person. We may say, then, that techni-
cal words are on the outer edge of our language.
Many such words never get Into the language in a
real sense, while others become popular and common
as a result of popular interest in the things for which
such words stand. Here is a list of technical or
trade terms :
Mortise, lien, alias, diagnose, premise, category, torso, tacky
falsetto, andante, psychosis, flexure, hypothesis, media.
WORDS 237
126. Characteristics of a Good Vocabulary. We may
now summarize the points of a good^ working vocab-
ulary. It must be large ; it must have a variety of
native and adapted words^ of learned and common
words ; it must be used accurately. You should strive
after this excellence by constant practice. If in ordi-
nary discourse or in daily speech you lapse into monot-
onous^ careless language, you will be unable to use
an appropriate vocabulary on selected occasions.
Words are not like clothes, to be selected for par-
ticular times. Their use must be habitual, to be cor-
rect and natural. Study the diction of users of good
English, that you may thereby acquire a correct taste.
Exercise 86
1. Bead the following passages, noting the difference
in the diction. One is thin and bare ; the other is rich
and varied.
(1) The spot, for some reason or other, impressed them as ex-
ceedingly lonely. On one side was the great height o£ the palace,
with the moonshine falling over it, and showing all the windows
barred and sliattered. Not a human eye could look down into the
little courtyard, even if the seemingly deserted palace had a
tenant. On all other sides of its narrow compass there was nothing
but the parapet, which as it now appeared was built right on the
edge of a steep precipice. Gazing from its imminent brow, the
party beheld the crowded confusion of roofs spreading over
the whole space between them and the line of hills that lay
beyond the Tiber. A long, misty wreath, just dense enough to
catch a little of the moonshine, floated above the houses, mid-
way towards the hilly line, and showed the course of the unseen
238 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
river. Far away on the right, the moon gleamed on the dome
of St. Peter's as well as on many lesser and hearer domes*
Hawthobnb : The Marble Faun.
(2) The party had arrived on Mt. Tom. The ascent had been
by a difficult path up the steep side of the mountain. The party
was therefore fatigued by the ascent, but once on the summit,
they forgot the difficult path by which they had come. The view
was splendid. They saw the Connecticut Biver wind through
the valley from Deerfield to Hartford where the gilded dome
of the Capitol could be seen. The valley was splendid with its
rich vegetation, and the river drew a silvery thread through it.
Down in the valley were seen farmers at work, while along the river
was seen the smoke from railway trains passing up and down
the valley from city to city. The splendid view was further
varied by the bold peaks of Mt Nonotuck and Mt. Holyoke, two
peaks that stood within hailing distance from where the party
was.
Classboom Exebgise.
2. Note the repetition of words and phrases in (2)
above. Vary these expressions by using synonyms or by
paraphrasing. Rewrite the entire passage and observe the
effect.
8. Note the use of learned and common wor^ in (1)
and (2) above.
4. Bring to class from your reading in connection with
other studies — science or history or foreign langaages
— a selected passage containing many learned words.
6. Make a list of technical words that have become
common ; observe them in oral recitations in year various
classes.
1 27. Means of Securing a Large Vocabulary : Read-
ing. The best way to secure a large vocabulary is to
WORDS 239
read widely in the best literature. Good writers often
use words that are unfamiliar to their readers. The
word may not be new^ but used in a new sense
which gives individuality to the language. In reading,
then, you should seize upon these new words, learn
their history, get their various meanings, and make
the words your own. Or, if it is a familiar word with
a new and peculiar use, get the particular shade of
meaning intended by the author. Perhaps the peculiar
use will tell you something about the author ; or it
may give atmosphere to the subject matter. Fre-
quently the charm of a book lies in the original way
of using words. It will therefore pay well to study
an author's diction. Add his new meanings to your
own stock of words. In no other way can a large
vocabulary be built up so quickly. When new
words have been recognized or new shades of mean-
ing felt, you should use them as often as possible,
even seeking opportunities to do so. At first the
novelty will embarrass you, but repeated use will re-
move self-consciousness and bring confidence.
Study the following passage, noting the diction
carefully. Do you find new words ? Are any words
used in a characteristic manner?
Vaudeville Abtists
Having watched the versatile flippered creatures behind the
footlights balancing billiard-caes on their sensitive noses, he had
become convinced that here was a brand of animal with which
he desired better acquaintance. A note to the trainer brought
an appointment for an interview.
240 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
** How do I train them ? '' Fish. For reward — fish. For pun*
iflhment — no fish. That is the whole simple, patient secret of
the education of seals. By fish the timid creatnres are lared
from the tank down the mnway to the stage — the first step in
their long, long schooling. By fish held discreetly ont of reach,
they are coaxed to mount for the first time those hard white
pedestals on which later they will pose statuesquely before the
footlights. Seals have naturally no sort of liking for those white
boxes. Having humped themselyes up on them to reach the fish,
they promptly slither o£E again to the more congenial level of the
floor. Over and over and over again the little performance has
to be gone through.
Adapted from The OuOook.
128. Translations. Practice in translating from for-
eignlangnages into English gives an enlarged vocabn-
lary. The foreign word cannot always be rendered
by the corresponding English word. The foreign
idiom must be understood^ and an English phrase
must be found to express as nearly as possible what
the foreign idiom contains. This process taxes the
English language^ making a demand upon it for a
great variety of synonyms. Even at best, a transla-
tion cannot be accurate and faithful to the original;
but by study and by exercising the English vocabu-
lary to the fully by calling upon many meanings and
many words^ you can come near the spirit of the
original. The process gives the translator a keen
sense for fine distinctions in meaning between words
and materially increases his useful stock of words.
129. The Dictionary. You will do well to make
the dictionary a daily companion. Let no new word
WORDS 241
or strange use of a familiar word escape you. Its
use should be justified at once^ and through the dic-
tionary its similar use in literature should be verified.
During this process of investigation^ synonyms and
sometimes antonyms will be discovered. These must
be followed through the dictionary and through
works on synonyms before the word itself can be
mastered.
1. Synonyms. The repeated word on the written
page wearies the reader and discloses a limited
vocabulary. In speaking, likewise, a free use of
synonyms breaks the monotony. Synonyms make
conversation and discourse of all kinds more en-
tertaining. A large vocabulary means a wealth of
synonyms for many common words. It will therefore
be a good exercise in vocabulary-building to bring
together from the dictionary and books of synonyms,
as well as from memory, all terms that are closely
related in meaning; as.
Fine : beantif ol, dainty, delicate, elegant, excellent, exquisite,
handsome, keen, nice, polished, pure, refined, splendid, charm-
ing, graceful, grand, lovely, pretty.
Awful : alarming, appalling, august, dire, dreadful, fearful,
frightful, horrible, portentous, shocking, terrible.
Clever : able, adroit, bright, expert, gifted, ingenious, quick,
skilful, smart, talented, proficient.
Since there is such variety of terms with which to
express these repeated ideas, there is no excuse for
using the same adjective repeatedly when a slightly
different shade of meaning is intended.
242 mGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
2. Antonyms. The dictionary must likewise be
called into use for antonyms. A large and readily
available vocabulary demands that the word of op-
posite meaning be known. This gives the power
of contrast and will often aid in description or in
accurate characterization. The new word should
therefore be stored in the mind side by side with its
antonym ; as^
Rigid : pliable, flexible. Bravery : cowardice.
Clearness: obscurity. Calmness: turbulence.
Welfare: misfortune. Reputation: discredit.
Creation: destruction. Novelty: antiquity.
Habit: desuetude. Nature: art.
Benefactor: evil-doer. Adept: bungler.
Determination: vacillation. Affluence: penury.
Improvement: deterioration. Difficulty: facility.
Weariness: refreshment. Readiness: reluctance.
Motive: caprice. Persistent: whimsicaL
The antonym will frequently help us when " at a
loss for the right word." In the list given, study the
exact meanings that are contrasted, and find other
antonyms for still other meanings of the words
named first.
3. Homonyms. Words that are pronounced alike
but have different spelling and different meanings
are called homonyms. Their study is more impor-
tant for spelling than for language; as,
Air, heir ; rite, right, write ; cent, scent ; seen, scene ; bom,
borne, bourn ; capital, capitol ; principal, principle ; meat, mete,
meet ; auger, augur ; see, sea.
WORDS 243
130. Emotional Words. Many words have individu-
ality and local character. The same word may mean
more to one community than to another. Lie, mean*
ing f alsehood^ has little significance among a people
whose standard of honesty is low. Likewise, among
men of coarse hahits of speech, lie has no emotional
qualities; the lie may be passed in a matter-of-fact
way without giving offense to the accused and with
no large or intensive meaning on the part of the
accuser. But where the sense of honor is acute,
where speech is habitually polite, courteous, and
refined, the word lie has an intensely emotional
content. To pass the lie to the chivalrous Southern
gentleman means clearing a good name, wiping
the blot off the 'scutcheon. lAej then, has local
distinctions of meaning. Its content varies geo-
graphically and culturally. This is true of all words
expressing qualities of character.
Compare the following words when used by the
refined and educated person with their use by the
coarse and careless :
Liar, thief, villain, traitor, pal, vice, crime, guilty, beautiful,
honor, gentleman, friend, loyalty, nobility, purity.
131. The Correct Word. Correctness depends
upon grammar, accuracy, and propriety. Ungram-
matical words signify ignorance; inaccurate words
prove carelessness as well as ignorance; and im-
proper words are vulgar and violate the rules of
good taste.
244 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
1. Grammatical Correctness.
Across^ once, twice are sometimes incorrectly written acrosst^
anoetf twicet. These forms are errors due to mispronunciation.
Am not, are not^ is not sometimes have the incorrect abbre-
Tiation aint.
Bought is the correct form of the participle, not boughten.
Compleadoned, Do not use complected, which is an incorrect
form of the participle.
Don*t is the abbreviation of do not ; does nH is the correct
abbreviation for does not.
Got is not necessary with fiave to denote possession ; as, I
have (got) an automobile.
Most never means nearly ; use almost instead.
That. Use t?iat (not as) to introduce an indirect statement;
as, I did not know that you would come.
2. Accuracy. No two synonyms mean exactly
the same thing. The slight distinction in meaning
is the desirable thing to attain. A confusion of
synonyms makes speech inaccurate.
Aggravate, to intensify ; not to annoy.
Allow, to permit ; not to say or to think.
Anxious, not synonymous with eager.
Calculate, to estimate or to figure ; not to think.
Cute for a/iute ; not a synonym for cunning.
Emigrant, one who leaves a country to reside elsewhere;
immigrant, one who enters a country to reside there.
Farther, greater distance ; further, greater quantity.
Fetch, to go after a thing and bring it back.
Fly, not synonymous with fiee. Birds fly ; cowards flee.
Learn, to acquire knowledge ; not to teach, to impart know«
ledge.
Leave, to abandon, to bequeath ; not to let, to permit*
WORDS 245
Idstertj to try to hear; hear, to have the sense of hearing;
ohey^ to heed requests or commands.
Mad, insane ; not angry, in a passion.
Verbal^ expressed in words; orcUy expressed by word of
month.
3. The Appropriate Word. Good use means use
by the best speakers and writers of our period.
Many expressions are familiar in the free^ uncon-
ventional speech of the street^ but are not used in
dignified conversations or in serious written dis-
course.
(a) Barbarisms. Such words as to stump, to
bluffy to gui/ffrazzle, push, pull, cinch, drag, breezy,
jay, etc., have not yet won a place in the usage
of writers and speakers of good English. They
are barbarisms. Some barbarisms of former days
have become established in good usage; while some
present-day barbarisms formerly were in good stand-
ing. This shows that language is a living, growing,
changing thing, and that present use is the only
true test for good use.
(6) Slang consists of words whose use is not
recognized by the best writers to-day. It is made up
largely of new words whose appeal is in their oddity,
or in their unexpected turn of thought. Their use
makes language picturesque and striking, and there-
fore attractive and sometimes forceful. Those slang
words whose appeal rests upon a sound linguistic
basis usually survive and later gain good standing.
On the other band, if the appeal rests upon vulgarity
246 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
or exaggeration^ the word is soon forgotten. Slang
is crude language in process of evolution. The selec-
tive process goes on continually ; the extravngances
of speech are finally rejected, while the genuine
speech forms become fixed and respectable.
The following is a list of slang terms that are
crude, without genuine language values, merely
tawdry, cheap, and empty embellishments. The life
of these words has been or will be brief:
Dope> bam, stang, lemon, mug, scrap, nutty, dippy, grub,
cheek, gall, gent, dough, long green, hot air, fire, bone.
Such slang words as base their popular meaning
on metaphors recognized instinctively, whose lin-
guistic peculiarity lies largely in their newness, will
sometimes attain good usage. You instantly feel
the force of sand as an element of character from
your knowledge of sand as a cause of friction and
resistance. Likewise, to say a man hedges gives a
picture of the coward hiding behind a convenient
bush or hedge. Other examples follow :
Graft, duck, ginger, cinch, pull, crawl, pump, rot, push.
The chief danger in using slang words lies in
their wide applicability. Their very novelty makes
them seem effective and so they are forced into
many unusual word combinations. The habitual
use of the same word in widely different senses
tends to impoverish your language and cripple your
vocabulary. To say " a stunning dress," " a stun-
ning girl,*' " a stunning party," " a stunning time,"
WORDS 247
etc., is to neglect such stately adjectives as artistic,
fascinating^ enjoyable, charming, delightful, etc.,
and from neglect the power to use a variety of
words becomes atrophied.
The following extract from a baseball report is an
illustration of slang. Such language is unintelligible
to the uninitiated and has the effect of a dialect.
Dick Rudolph started on the mound for Toronto, but was sup-
ported in wretched style and, in addition, was an easy mark for
the Jersey City hitsmiths. They pounded his offerings to all
corners of the lot, and when ten hits and seven runs were
chalked up against him Joe Kelley gave him the high sign to
flee in the seventh stanza. Rowan took up the burden and was
found for four bingles, besides giving two bases on balls and
uncoiling a wild heave.
(c) Obsolete Words. Our language has discarded
many words. Their use now would be a violation of
good use. Such words are called archaisms. Milton's
yclept is an example. Careful prose writers to-day
would not use it. Poetry, however, holds on to
terms long after they are counted obsolete in prose.
Other examples follow :
Brake, bedight, erstwhile, eke, wight, ween, wot, sith, smite,
wroth, list, dight, therewithal, leech, damosel, methinks, sooth,
dole.
(d) New Words. The English language is con-
stantly adding new words. You have seen how other
languages contribute words through immigration;
how slang words occasionally rise in dignity ; and
liow technical terms may become popular through
248 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
inventions and discoveries. When you are in doubt
about the standing of a new word^ follow Pope's
advice :
Be not the first by whom the new are tried.
Nor yet the hut to lay the old aside.
Examples of new words follow:
Electrocute, marconigram, trolley (verb), motor (verb), treck,
ante, aviator, aviation, bunco, blizzard, commuter, suburbanite,
enthuse, phone, hike.
132. The Effective Word. Words are effective when
they express the exact shade of meaning intended
and are at the same time appropriate. To this end
you should know the history of words, their syn-
onyms and antonyms, and their standing among
good writers.
133. The General and Specific Word. A general
word has wide significance. Tree may apply equally
well in speaking of an apple tree, an oak tree, a
shade tree, or a dead tree. But the general word
tree, alone, is not sufficient to create a definite
mental picture. Sometimes the general term is
effective because it leaves the mind free to construct
its own picture. When we say " tree-less plain," or
" the lone house,** the imagination is free to make
its own specifications as to kind of house or tree.
Lone house will call up a picture according to the
experience of the reader or hearer. Lone red frame
house, lone high-gabled house, lone mud hovel,
would each restrict the thought, while the general
term gives expanse and freedom^ as it leaves the
WORDS 249
mind free to draw out of experience the appropriate
picture of a particular cottage^ bungalow^ palace^
mansion, hut, castle, shack, etc.
Descriptions are usually made vivid and exact by
the use of specific words. If you desire to give
your reader or hearer a distinct, specific mental pic-
ture, use the specific terms that apply. Your only
necessary limitation in this respect is the range of
knowledge common to yourself and to your audience.
Eucalyptus tree will create an exact picture for him
who has seen it ; torrid heat will adequately describe
for him who has experienced it. The Esquimaux
would understand neither. Clearly, then, that de-
scription will be vivid and precise which has those
specific words that fall within the experience of the
person addressed. Observe the value of the specific
words in the following description :
(1) I remember him as if it were yesterday, as he came plod*
ding to the inn door, his sea-chest following behind him in a
hand-barrow ; a tall, strong, heavy, nut-brown man ; his tarry
pig-tail falling over the shoulders of his soiled blue coat ; his
hands ragged and scarred, with black, broken nails ; .and the
sabre cut across one cheek, a dirty livid white. I remember him
looking round the cove, and whistling to himself as he did so,
and then breaking out in that old sea song that he sang so often
afterward : —
Fifteen men on the Dead Man's chest —
Yo-ho-ho, and a bottle of mm,
in the high old tottering voice that seemed to have been tuned
and broken at the capstan bars. Then he rapped on the door
with a bit of stick like a handspike that he carriedi and when
260 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
my father appeared, called rouglily for a glass of mm. TliiSy
when it was brought to him, he drank slowly like a connoissenr,
lingering on the taste, and still looking about him at the cliffs,
and up at our signboard.
Stevenson: Treasure Island.
Contrast the frequency and force of the specific
words in the preceding passage with the more general
terms used in the following:
(2) On that day two men were lingering on the banks of a
small but rapid stream, within an hour's journey of the encamp-
ment of Webb, like those who awaited the appearance of an ab-
sent person, or the approach of some expected event. The vast
canopy of woods spread itself to the margin of the river, over^
hanging the water and shadowing its dark current with a deeper
hue. The rays of the sun were beginning to grow less fierce,
and the intense heat of the day was lessened, as the cooler
vapors of the springs and fountains rose above their leafy beds
and rested in the atmosphere. Still that breathing silence, which
marks the drowsy sultriness of an American landscape in July,
pervaded the secluded spot, interrupted only by the low voices
of the men, the occasional and lazy tap of a woodpecker, the
discordant cry of some gaudy jay, or a swelling on the ear,
from the dull roar of a distant waterfall.
Cooper: The Last of the Mohicans.
In the passage from Stevenson little or nothing is
said in general terms. The specific words predom-
inate :
Plodding, tall, strong, heavy, nut-brown, soiled, blue, ragged,
scarred, black, broken, dirty, livid, high, old, tottering, stick like
a handspike^ called roughly, drank slowly*
WORDS 261
In the quotation from Cooper^ on the contrary,
there is an abundance of general terms, unqualified
and vague:
Two men, an absent person, some expected event, canopy of
woods, deeper hue, atmosphere, breathing silence, sultriness,
American landscape.
Almost every term leaves much to the reader to
specify. What did the two men look like ? What
sort of event was expected ? What kind of woods ?
What kind of trees formed the canopy ? Any vines
or shrubbery? What kind of landscape — hill or
plain, wild or cultivated, wooded or bare ? The pic-
ture is vague and dim, leaving the reader free to fill
in his own experiences ; while Stevenson's sketch is
distinct in outUne, leaving little to the imagination*
Each has its value. The specific word visualizes
the object described. It makes the language concrete,
with an appeal to the senses. Herein lies its effective-
ness. A preponderance of specific words produces
a lively style. It is valuable in exact definition and
description. The general word is abstract and fails
to define the object described. Its effectiveness lies
in the freedom it allows to the individual imagina-
tion. The general word often provides a background
on which the reader's own imagination builds the de-
tails. It is very effective in impressionistic writing,
especially in description.
252 mGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
Exercise 37
1. Bring to class a passage that has an abundance of
specific words; another passage with many general terms.
2. In the passage quoted from Hawthorne in Exercise
36, p. 237, find synonyms for the following. Do you prefer
any of the synonyms to the words used by Hawthorne ?
Impressed, shattered, deserted, compass, parapet, precipice, im-
minent, brow, confusion, wreath, anseen, gleamed, lesser, tenant
8. Find synonyms for the following words from the
passage below. What effect have your synonyms on the
original?
Conceiyed, arduous, project, arriving, conquer, inclination,
task, inattention, concluded, speculative, conviction, contrary,
rectitude, contrived, employed.
It was about this time I conceived the bold and arduous pro-
ject of arriving at moral perfection. I wished to live without
committing any fault at any time ; I would conquer all that either
natural inclination, custom, or company might lead me into. As
I knew, or thought I knew, what was right and wrong, I did
not see why I might not always do the one and avoid the other*
But I soon found I had undertaken a task of more difficulty than
I had imagined. While my care was employed in guarding
against one fault, I was often surprised by another ; habit took
the advantage of inattention; inclination was sometimes too
strong for reason. I concluded, at length, that the mere speculative
conviction that it was our interest to be completely virtuous was
not sufficient to prevent our slipping ; and that the contrary habits
must be broken, and good ones acquired and established, before
we can have any dependence on a steady, uniform rectitude of
conduct. For this purpose I therefore contrived the following
method.
Fkanxlin: AtUobiography*
WORDS 253
4. Find antonyms for the following words selected from
Ex. 3 above :
Arduous, moral, perfection, fault, conquer, avoid, care, sur-
prised, reason, virtuous, dependence, uniform, rectitude, conduct,
interest.
5. Of the synonyms selected in Exs. 2 and 8, what pro-
portion were learned words? Of the antonyms selected in
Ex. 4, how many were learned?
6. Make a list of words whose meaning you have learned
during the present school year. Give synonyms for each
word, and be prepared to use them in sentences.
CHAPTER IX
SENTENCES
134* IntroductioxL Since the sentence is an im-
portant unit of expression^ it is essential that the
principles underlying its structure be understood.
The purpose of the sentence is to convey thought.
This can be accomplished only when it is (1) gram*
matically correct^ that is^ when the words, phrases,
and clauses bear the proper relation to one another;
(2) so constructed that the reader gets the precise
thought intended by the writer. This involves, in
addition to the grammatical principles underlying
correct sentence structure, the rhetorical principles
of effective sentence structure — unity, coherence,
emphasis, and variety.
135. Grammatical Correctness. The rules and prin-
ciples enabling one to write sentences correct in
grammatical form, you studied in the grammar. It
should now be your aim to write sentences that are
clear and effective as well as grammatically correct.
136. The Sentence a Unit. A sentence is a combi-
nation of words expressing a complete thought. It
differs from the phrase in that it is complete^ and
from the clause in that it is independent. The phrase
consists of a group of related words expressing a
single idea — not a complete thought. The clause.
SENTENCES 266
while it ^presses a complete thought in itself, is
always dependent on some word. It cannot stand
alone, independent of this word or of the sentence
containing this word. It is not a complete thought
unit. Phrases and clauses should not be confused with
sentences. Each has its distinct uses and functions.
Every sentence should he a unit. When a phrase
or clause is allowed to stand as a sentence^ the reader
becomes confused, or if not confused as to the
meaning, he becomes annoyed.
Exercise 38
1. Review the phrase, the simple sentence, the com-
pound senteDce, the complex sentence, and the clause in
some English Grrammar.
2. Classify the following as phrases, clauses, or sen-
tences. Classify the sentences as to structure, as simple,
complex, or compound.
(1) These deeds must not be thought
After these ways ; so, it will make us mad*
(2) To be thus is nothing;
But to be safely thus.
(3) I wish your horses swift and sure of foot*
(4) If 't be so.
(5) No son of mine succeeding.
(6) Now near enough ; your leavy screens throw down.
And show like those you are.
(7) After waiting a dismal time and solemnly declaring we
should not stir foot.
(8) But could be willing to march on to Calais
Without impeachment
256 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
(9) My anny bat a weak and sickly guard.
(10) If they '11 do neither, we will come to them.
And make them skirr away, as swift as stones
Enforce from the old Assyrian slings.
(11) Whether 't is nobler in the mind to suffer
The slings and arrows of outrageous f ortune.
Or to take arms against a sea of troubles,
And by opposing end them.
(12) To sleep ! perchance to dream.
(13) Neither a borrower nor a lender be ;
For loan oft loses both itself and friend.
(14) I say, a moying grove.
(15) Out, out, brief candle.
(16) Where violets bloom blue as the skies.
(17) To him who in the love of Nature holds
Communion with her visible forms. '
(18) That all men were said to have been given the right to
enter a protest.
(19) As the prancing steeds, drawn up in battle array, their
necks curved proudly, pawed the earth impatient for the signaL
(20) If a country finds itself wretched, sure enough that
country has been misguided.
8. In the complex sentences or clauses in Ex. 2, give
in each case the classification of clauses.
4. Classify the following sentences; classify also the
phrases and clauses. State the relation existing between
members ; point out and classify the connectives.
(1) His picture, which hung up in the hall, was thought by
the servants to have something supernatural about it ; for they
remarked that in whatever part of the hall you went, the eyes
of the warrior were still fixed on you.
(2) I have no expectation that any man will read history
aright who thinks that what was done in a remote age by men
SENTENCES 257
nvhosd names have resoanded far, lias any deeper sense than
what he is doing to-day.
(3) If then art worn and hard beset
With sorrows, that thon woold'st f orget.
If thon woold'st read a lesson that will keep
Thy heart from fainting and thy sool from sleeps
Go to the woods and hills.
(4) A book without art is simply a commodity; it may
be exceedingly valuable to the consumer, very profitable to the
producer, but it does not come within the domain of pure liter-
ature, y
(5) Bat the finest music in the room is that which streams
out of the ear of the spirit in many an exquisite strain from the
hanging shelf of books on the opposite wall.
(6) In reading the biographies of eminent writers, it is in-
teresting to note how many of them were great readers when
they were young ; and teachers can testify that the best writers
among their pupils are those who have read good literature or
have been accustomed to hear good English at home.
(7) When a servant is called before his master, he does not
come with an expectation to hear himself rated for some trivial
fault, threatened to be stripped, or used with any other unbe-
coming language, which mean masters often give to worthy
servants ; but it is often to know what road he took that he
came so readily back to order, whether he passed by such a
ground ...
(8) This was the noblest Roman of them all ;
All the conspirators, save only he,
Did that they did in envy of great CsBsar.
He only, in a general honest thought
And common good to all, made one of them.
(9) The rough work b, at all events, real, honest, and, gen-
erally though not always, useful ; while the fine work is, a great
258 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
deal of it, f ooluh and false as well as fine, and therefore dit*
honorable.
(10) For this notion Johnson has thonght fit to make him
the butt of mnch damsj ridicale.
(11) The consequence was that jnst when we were the most
afraid to laugh, we saw the most comical things to laugh at.
(12) If you mean to please any people, you must give them
the boon which they ask — not what you may think better for
them, but of a kind totally different.
(13) But to my mind, though I am native here
And to the manner born, it is a custom
More honour'd in the breach than the observance.
(14) Were they not forced with those that should be ours^
We might have met them daref ul, beard to beard,
And beat them backward home.
(15) And no voice but was praising this Roland of mine,
As I poured down his throat our last measure of wine^
Which (the burgesses voted by common consent)
Was no more than his due who brought good news from
Ghent
137. Kinds of Sentences. Sentences are classified
according to the manner in which the thought is ex-
pressed or according to the purpose of the writer or
speaker^ as declarative, interrogative, and impera-
tive, each of which may or may not be exclamatory.
The kind of sentence the speaker or writer selects
depends upon his state of mind — whether he
wishes to affirm or deny a fact, ask a question, or
give a command, and whether he does any one of
these under stress of emotion or not.
Sentences, as you have seen, are also classified ao-
SENTENCES 259
cording to structure as simple, complex, and com-
pound. Each kind of sentence has a special value
and purpose in expressing thought, the kind used
depending upon the thought to be expressed. From
the rhetorical standpoint each has certain advan-
tages, a knowledge of which is useful in writing.
138. The Simple Sentence. The simple sentence
is clear, direct, and forceful. A style consisting
chiefly of simple sentences, however, would be ex-
tremely tiresome. Used with the other two kinds of
sentence, it is useful in producing emphasis, for it is
short in comparison with them, and its subject and
predicate are thus made prominent. It is especially
effective in introducing and in closing a paragraph,
serving in the former case to state the subject of
the paragraph, in the latter to sum up the thought
developed. Short sentences are often forceful, but
they are likely to produce a "choppy" style, and
therefore require skilful handling. In short, the
chief use of the simple sentence is to give emphasis
andy placed in contrast with more complex struo^
tures, to add effectiveness.
Notice the effectiveness of the short sentence in
the following:
Johnson was now in his seyentynsecond year. The infirmities
of age were coming fast npon him. That inevitable event of
which he had never thought without horror was brought near to
him; and his whole life was darkened by the shadow of death.
He had often to pay the cruel price of longevity. Every year he
lost what could never be replaced* The strange dependents to
260 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
whom he had given shelter, and to whom, in spite of their f anltSy
he was strongly attached by habit, dropped off one by one;
and in the silence of his home, he regretted even the noise of their
scolding matches.
Macaulat: Life of Johfuon.
139. The Compound Sentence. By means of the
fcompomid sentence it is possible to express two or
more ideas of equal value in close connection, so that
they appear as a single idea. The effect, if the state-
ments are simple, is almost that of a simple sentence.
The compound sentence has the advantage of ex-
pressing ideas not as unrelated facts, but as facts
united to constitute a whole. It binds the ideas to-
gether more closely, and does away with monoto-
nous sentence structure.
The connectives of the compound sentence are
andy huty or y for. Each of these expresses a special
relationship between the parts of the sentence. And
signifies that the parts are considered in precisely the
same sense — parallel in thought and importance,
and closely related in meaning; hut that they are
placed in opposition or contrast; or that they are
alternatives )for or therefore that one idea is causal^
giving the reason for the other. The principal co-
ordinate conjunctions are :
Copulative : and, both — and, abo, moreover, however.
Adversative : bat, yet, still, while, only, nevertheless.
Alternative : or, either — or, neither — nor, nor, else, whether,
whether — or.
Causal : for, therefore, hence, consequently.
SENTENCES 261
The coordination of ideas is most effective when
the relation between the ideas is expressed with careful
discrimination. There is the danger, however, of
joining thoughts of unequal rank and of connecting
them loosely with andCs regardless of the relation
between them. This shows inaccuracy of thought
and carelessness in expression. Observe in the reci-
tations and conversations of your classmates the
tendency to connect all details, important and other-
wise, by ancTs. Note too the resulting monotony
and loss in force.
140. The Complex Sentence. Inasmuch as thought
itself is complex and ideas bear a subtle relation one
to another, a type of sentence which is capable of
showing such relations as clearly as possible, is of the
highest importance. The complex sentence — made
up, as it is, of one principal statement with one or
more dependent statements — makes possible the ex-
pression of complex thought. It is capable, through
the dependent statements and their introductory con-
nectives, of expressing shades of meaning and exact
relationships. It often lacks the clearness of the
simple sentence ; but on the other hand it has greater
possibilities of power, dignity, and beauty.
To illustrate the power of the complex sentence,
note in the following sentence that the adjective
clause conveys a shade of meaning which it is not
possible to express in the simple sentence where an
adjective, a participle, or a prepositional phrase takes
the place of the clause. The broad highway that
262 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
was arched with elms pleased me most loses defi*
i;^iteness when expressed as The broad elm-arched
highway pleased ma most. The first sentence signi-
fies that the particular highway designated pleased me
more than other highways ; whereas the second sen-
tence may convey the same idea, or it may mean that
the highway pleased me more than, for example, the
landscape, the beautiful sunset, or my companions.
Thus might be shown, too, the possibilities of
substantive and advetbial clauses. It is possible,
for instance, to tell the time of an occurrence or
the duration of an event by means of single words
like then^ now^ this eveningy later ; or by phrases
like in thefuture^ before the wary after our vacation,
throughout the night. We cannot by such devices,
however, fix the time relative to the time of some
other event. This can be done only by the use of
the temporal clause ; for example,
While we were debating what to do, a load peal of thnnder
startled as into action.
The sentence shows that the two actions were simul-
taneous and, moreover, that the "peal of thunder*'
stands in a causal relation to the second action.
The danger in the use of the complex sentence is
that it may become too complicated and involved in
structure. In that case it loses clearness, becomes
unwieldy, and hinders rather than helps in the ex-
pression of thought.
141. Connectives. If the complex sentence is to
express all which it is capable of expressing, it is
SENTENCES 263
important that the proper introductory or connect-
ing word be selected. The connective must be such
as will, in each case, define accurately the principal
statement, and thus make significant the special
meaning of the clause. Think what the relation is,
whether it is one of purpose, time, place, cause,
manner, condition, concession, result; then use the
proper word — pronoun, adverb, or conjunction —
which will express the precise relation.
EXEBGISE 89
1. Change the prose complex sentences in Exercise 88
(pp. 255 ff.) to simple sentences and point out in each case
what has been gained or lost by the change.
2. (a) Study the connectives given in some English
Orammar. From your reading and from other sources to
which you have access, add to each list.
(h) Be prepared to use each one of these connectives
in a sentence.
8. Write complex sentences to illustrate
(a) An adjective clause.
(&) A substantive clause.
(c) An adverbial clause of time, of place, of manner,
of cause, of purpose, of result, of condition, of conces-
sion, of comparison or degree.
4. Wherever possible, in the sentences which you wrote
in Ex. 8, substitute for the clause an adjective, a partici-
ple, or a prepositional phrase. What have your sentences
lost by the change? (Keep all your sentences in Exs. 8
and 4 for future use.)
5. In the adverbial clauses in Ex. 8 (c), substitute
some other connective for the ones used, and note the
ehan^e in meaning.
264 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
6. Bewrite a paragraph you have recently writteiif
using compound and complex sentences wherever pos-
sible, and note the effect.
142. Long and Short Sentences. Long and short
sentences have their separate^ individual uses. The
particular use of the short sentence has been sug-
gested already in connection with the discussion of
the simple sentence (§ 138, p. 259). When vigor^
force, and rapidity are desired, the short sentence is
effective. It is especially useful in the topic state-
ment, in a summary, or in making emphatic an im-
portant point. The long sentence gives dignity and
grace, smoothness and finer shades of meaning, as
you have observed in the study of the complex sen-
tence. It is best not to make one's sentences too
long, for long sentences are likely to become con-
fusing from the overcrowding of details and ideas.
Note the use of short sentences in the Gettysburg
Address, in the quotation from Senator Hoar on
page 216, and in the following :
The war is inevitable, and let it come ! I repeat it, sir—- let
it come ! It is in vain, sir, to extenaate the matter. Gentlemen
may cry, " Peace ! Peace ! " but there is no peace ! The war is
actually began. The next gale that sweeps from the north will
bring to oar ears the clash of resounding arms ! Our brothers
are already in the field ! Why stand we here idle ? What is it
that gentlemen wish ? What would they have ? Is life so dear,
or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and
slavery ? Forbid it, Almighty God ! I know not what course
others may take ; but as for me, give me liberty or give me death.
Patrick Henby.
SENTENCES 265
143* Loose and Periodic Sentences. Having conr
sidered the grammatical classification of sentences,
it remains to consider their classification according
to rhetorical structure. Rhetorically, sentences are
classified as loose and periodic. A loose sentence is
one which is grammatically complete at one or more
points hef ore the end ; that is, the sentence might
be ended at more than one point and still make
sense. The periodic sentence is one in which the
meaning is not complete until the very end; the
thought is suspended until the close. In the one,
the important idea comes toward the close of the
sentence ; in the other, it comes at an early point in
the sentence and is followed by the subordinate
clauses and modifiers of the main idea.
Note the following examples of each :
Xoo86. •— They were full of anticipations of the meeting with
the family and hoasehold, down to the very cat and
dog ; and of the joy they were to give their little
sisters hy the presents with which their pockets
were crammed ; hut the meeting to which they
seemed to look forward with the greatest impa-
tience was with Bantam, which I found to he a
pony, and, according to their talk, possessed of
more virtues than any steed since the days of
Bucephalus. Irvinq,
Loose. — He [Bums] does not write from hearsay, but from
sight and experience ; it is the scenes that he has
lived and laboured amidst, that he describes : those
scenes, rude and humble as they are, have kindled
beautiful emotions in his soul, noble thoughts and
266 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
definite resolves ; and he speaks forth what is in
him, not from any outward call of vanity or interest,
bat because his heart is too full to be silent
Cablylb.
Periodic. — Ireland, before the English conquest, though never
governed by a despotic power, had no Parliament.
BUBKB.
Periodic. — And yet he [Johnson], who was generally the
haughtiest and most irritable of mankind, who
was but too prompt to resent anything which looked
like a slight on the part of a purse-proud book-
seller, or of a noble and powerful patron, bore pa-
tiently from -mendicants, who, but for his bounty,
must have gone to the workhouse, insults more
provoking than those for which he had knocked
down Osbom and bidden defiance to Chesterfield.
Macaxtlay.
144. Advantages of the Loose Sentence. The loose
sentence follows the natural thought process. It is
less formal than the periodic sentence and is there-
fore hetter adapted for narration and simple exposi-
tion, when an easy style is appropriate. Its structure^
which is conversational in eflFect, enables the reader
to grasp the thought readily; he is not kept in sus-
pense and forced to remember unimportant details
until the end of the sentence. The very informality
of the loose sentence adds ease and naturalness to
one's writing.
The danger in using the loose sentence is that
the writer is likely to introduce ideas which do not
develop the main thought of the sentence* The sen*
SENTENCES 267
tence must be carefully constructed, its phrases and
clauses well placed^ and every part of it must con-
tribute to the main idea.
X45. Advantages of the Periodic Sentence. The ad-
vantages of the periodic sentence are twofold. First,
It is likely to be clear, for, since the meaning is not
<;omplete until the end, the writer must keep his
point definitely in mind. Second, the periodic sen-
tence holds the interest of the reader because he is
kept in suspense until the close. To be sure, if the
reader is held in continual suspense, he is likely
to become wearied and lose interest. This is a dis-
advantage of the periodic sentence. Another disad-
vantage is that it lacks the ease of the loose sentence
and has a tendency, when used too frequently, to
make the composition sound formal and labored.
Neither the loose nor the periodic sentence should
be used to the exclusion of the other. Each should be
employed for its special merits. A mingling of the
two will be found to be most effective, in that each
will counteract the disadvantages which the other
possesses. The loose sentence will relieve the stiff-
ness of the periodic ; the periodic will add point and
effectiveness to the careless ease of the loose sentence.
146. The Balanced Sentence. Another form of
sentence frequently found in Uterature is the bal-
anced sentence. It consists of two parts alike in con-
struction, and so resembling each other that they
are said to be balanced. Its use is to place side by
side in parallel construction two ideas which are set
268 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
in contrast, thereby making the contrast more e£Eeo-
tive and apparent. Used too frequently, the balanced
sentence becomes monotonous and renders the style
stiff and formal. Note Macaulay's use of the balanced
sentence in the following selection from The lAfe
of Johnson.
While he was thas irregularly educating himself, his family
was sinking into hopeless poverty. Old Michael Johnson was
much better qualified to pore upon books, and to talk about
them, than to trade in them. His business declined ; his debts
increased. • • .
Exercise 40
1. Select from your reading five examples to illustrate
the use of short sentences ; of long sentences.
2. Write five loose sentences. Beconstruct them into
periodic sentences. Note the effect. (Reserve the sen-
tences yoa write in Exs. 2 and 8 for future use.)
8. Bring to class five illustrations of the periodic sen-
tence ; of the loose sentence.
4. Bring to class a passage which has both loose and
periodic sentences.
6. Find in Macaulay's works ten examples of the bal-
anced sentence.
6. In the selections on pp. 255-258, tell which sen-
tences are loose and which are periodic. Change some of
the periodic to loose and vice versa, noting the effect.
7. Review some of the paragraphs you have written re-
cently. Have you used periodic or loose sentences for the
most part ? Can you improve them by changing the rhe-
torical structure of any of them?
8. Beconstruct the following into loose sentences. What
is gained by the suspension of the thought till the end?
SENTENCES 269
(1) liy then, the removal of this spirit of American Kberty
be, for the greater part, or rather entirely impracticable; if
the ideas of criminal process be inapplicable, or, if applicable,
are in the highest degree inexpedient ; what way yet remains ?
BUBKE.
(2) Bat on the Sabbath eve, when her mother had gone early
to bed, and her gentle sister had smiled and left us, as we sat
alone by the quiet hearth, it was her turn to make me feel that
here was a deeper poetry. — Hawthorne.
(3) Two or three yards after a portly German with a little boy
holding each of his hands, while a third still younger rode ahead
astride of his father's solid cane, there came two slim Japanese
gentlemen, small and sallow, in their neatly cut coats and
trousers. — Bbandeb Matthews.
(4) To poor people, looking np under moist eyebrows, it
seemed a wonder where it all came from. — Stevenson.
(5) Over in the railed-in space, where the hundreds of tele-
graph instruments were in place, the operators were arriving in
twos and threes. — Norbis.
(6) Tet the two Lichfield men had so many early recollections
in common, and sympathized with each other on so many points
on which they sympathized with nobody else in the vast popu-
lation of the capital, that, though the master was often provoked
by the monkey-like impertinence of the pupil, and the pupil by
the bearish rudeness of the master, they remained friends till
they were parted by death. — Macaulay.
(7) In that same village, and in one of these very houses (which,
to tell the precise truth, was sadly time-worn and weather-beaten),
there lived, many years since, while the country was yet a pro-
vince of Great Britain, a simple good-natured fellow cZ the name
of Rip Van Winkle. — Irving.
(8) If ever I should wish for a retreat, whither I might steal
from the world and its distractions, and dream quietly away the
270 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
remnant of a troubled life, I know of none more promifflngtliaii
tfak litde valley. — Ibying.
(9) While, therefore, good nature depends on the physical
organization, and cannot be coltiTated by effort; while good
hamor depends on drcomstances, and is no part of the man him-
self, — good temper is something which we can all acquire, if
we choose. — J. F. Clabkb.
(10) If, in the fatore, an age of general well-being is to arriye,
its children will torn, as all men who have the opportonity must,
to what is best in homan art, to the literatore of Greece. — Lang*
147. Unity in the Sentence. Every sentence, you
bave seen, should be a unit, expressing one complete
thought and one only. Unity requires that there be
a central thought or main idea in every sentence, and
that all associated ideas be subordinate to this cen-
tral idea, merely serving to develop it.
148. Causes for Lack of Unity. The most impor-
tant causes for the violation of unity are
1. The expression of more than one main thought in
a sentence, when these thoughts are not of the equal
importance and the close relationship necessary to the
compound sentence.
2. The changing of subjects within a sentence, or the
changing of construction within the sentence.
3. The use of too many unimportant sentences to ex-
press one important idea, or crowding too many thoughts
or ideas into one sentence. In the first case the sentences
should be united, and those containing subordinate ideas
should be placed in subordinate relation to the main idea
by the use of phrases and clauses. In the second case, the
sentence containing too many ideas should be broken up
into two or more sentences.
SENTENCES "^a
4. The addition of too many dependent clauses, and the
loose addition of ^^and which " clauses when the construc-
tion will not permit it. For example,
There came up suddenly a hard shower accompanied hja stifE
gale and which lasted almost an hoar.
In this sentence there is no construction parallel with the
which clause to which the and may connect it. The rela-
tive which is in itself the connective and the and has no
construction in the sentence. This construction is known
as the '^ tagging relative clause."
6. In long sentences an involved construction that con-
fuses the reader.
149. Test for Unity in the Sentence. To test a sen-
tence for unity, try to sum up its main thought in
a word or phrase. Determine whether all other ideas
are closely related to this main topic.
150. Coherence in the Sentence. Coherence de-
mands that the relation between the parts of a sen-
tence — the words, phrases, and clauses — be clear
and unmistakable. This relation is a grammatical re-
lation for the most part. Coherence also demands a
consistent arrangement within the sentence.
151. Causes for the Lack of Coherence. The prin-
cipal causes for the lack of coherence are
1. The placing of words, phrases, and clauses too far
from the words they modify.
2. A careless use of participles and pronouns. Sen-
tences should be so constructed that there can be no
doubt what word a participle modifies or to what word
a pronoun refers. If there is ambiguity, reword your
sentence. Place the participle so that its relation is unmis-
272 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
tekibk; and in the cue of the pron oun repeat the i
dent, or sobetitiite the noon for the pronoon.
8. The incoherent nae of connectiTes. Bead again the
diwoarion of connectiTes, §§ 139-141 (p. 260). Bj %
cafdees selection of oonnectiTCs, the exact fhtm^t which
is in the speaker's mind is not accurately expressed. Bui
cannot be replaced by and without changing the meaning
of the sentence. Hence it is necessary to select connectiTes
carefully in order that the precise meaning may be set
forth.
4. Change of construction within the sentence. This
may be due to
(a) a change in the Toice, mode, or tense of » Tcrb;
(ft) the failure to make parallel in construction parts
of ft sentence that are parallel in thought or in their gram-
matical connection with some other part of the sentence ;
(c) a change of subject in a compound or complex sen*
tence ; '
(d) a shifting from one form of expression to anodier.
152. Emphasis in the Sentence. Emphasis is con-
cerned with the arrangement of the words^ phrases,
and clauses of a sentence^ and demands that they be
so placed that their relative importance is evident.
Unless the writer makes emphatic those points or
ideas which to him are the important ideas^ his
meaning is not fully grasped by his reader^ and the
force of his sentence is lost.
153. Causes for Lack of Emphasis. Some of the
causes for a lack of emphasis are
1. The placing of emphatic words or phrases in unem*
phafcio positions. The emphatic positions in the sentence
are the beginning and the end.
SENTENCES 273
2. Failure to arrange tlie parts of a sentence — words,
phrases, or clauses — in the order of climax.
8. Following too closely the normal order of subject,
predicate, and object. By placing words, phrases, or
clauses out of their normal order, you make them conspic-
uous and thereby give them emphasis.
4. Choosing a long word when a short one would be
more pertinent, a general word when a specific word would
be more expressive and to the point. (See § 133, p. 248.)
5. Using more words than are necessary to express the
meaning. Brevity in itself is emphatic. See Lincoln's
Gettysburg Address.
154. Variety in the Sentence. For the sake of
clearness and emphasis and for the sake of interest
on the part of reader or listener, there should be
variety in sentence structure. Too many short em*
phatic sentences, or a series of long involved sen*
tences, are equally tiresome to the reader. Some
should be short, others long ; some simple, some
compound, and others complex. Some should make
use of the periodic structure suspending the thought,
while others should be loose or balanced in accord-
ance with the nature of the thought to be expressed.
Such a variety in the sentence form gives a pleasing
style. (See § 182, p. 315.)
EXEBCISE 41
1. Examine some of the extracts from the works of
good authors in the other chapters and note the variety of
sentences used. Determine whether a given author uses
predominatingly any one kind of sentence. If so, what is
the effect produced?
274 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
2. Examine the sentences yon wrote in connection with
Exs. 3 and 4 in Exercise 89 (p. 268) and Exs. 2 and 8 in
Exercise 40 (p. 268) with a view to improving them from
the standpoint of unity, coherence, and emphasis.
8. Rewrite your last theme, improving the sentences by
giving them greater coherence, unity, emphasis, and variety
in structure, wherever possible.
4. Correct the sentences given in Appendix A (p. 878)
for unity, coherence, and emphasis.
5. Select from a daily newspaper extracts which you
think could be improved in sentence structure. Point
out the weaknesses.
6. In your reading find (a) five sentences which seem
to you to be particularly good from the standpoint of
unity; (&) five that are long but coherent throughout,
fulfilling the laws of coherence; (c) five in which im-
portant ideas are made emphatic.
7. From your reading, select a passage which shows a
pleasing variety in sentence structure.
8. Bring to class a selection from some good author
that seems to you to be a forceful piece of composition
because of the sentence structure.
CHAPTER X
PARAGRAPHS
155* The Paragraph. A paragraph is a group of
sentences all closely related and treating of one
topic. It is a unit of discourse developing a single
thought^ and is made up of sentences which are
closely related to one another and to the topic
of the paragraph. Developing a single topic^ the
paragraph must he at the same time a complete
treatment of that topic — a small composition in
itself.
156. Importance of the Paragraph. Paragraphs
mark the natural divisions of thought. They are of
great assistance to the reader in following the
thought^ in that they mark the completion of one
phase of the subject and the beginning of another.
If the paragraphing is skilful, the reader can grasp
the whole quickly and easily, whereas bad paragraph-
ing or a lack of the proper divisions confuses him
and retards his understanding.
Not only are paragraphs helpful to the reader:
they are also helpful to the writer or speaker. Abil-
ity to express your thought with clearness depends
greatly on your skill in grouping your sentences
about a central idea, and in making tiiem closely re-
lated to each other and to the topic to be developed.
276 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
Every wdl^ionstructed paragrcph, whether oral or
foritten, should set forth some idea in a clear-cut
succinct form.
iSi. Paragraph Length. There is no rule deter*
mining the length of a paragraph; it will depend
entirely on the thought to be expressed. Sometimes
the idea may be made clear and complete in one or
two sentences; again it may require several sen-
tences. When a paragraph becomes long, covering
the printed page, for example^ it should be eyed
with suspicion. The probability is that it contains
more than the main idea, that you have not kept to
your topic^ or that your thoughts have not been ex-
pressed concisely.
In written conversation, each separate speech
forms a paragraph, even though the speech con-
sists of merely a word. For example, note the selec-
tion from David Gopperfield on page 103.
258. Topic Statement. In good writing it is possi-
ble to pick out a phrase or clause or sentence which
states the main idea of the paragraph. This is the
topic statement, and consists of a brief summary of
the paragraph. If the topic statement is not ex-
pressed, the paragraph is usually so constructed that
such a statement may be easily formed, thus showing
that the writer had one in mind as he wrote.
To grasp the thought of what you read, especially
if it is expository or argumentative in nature, you
should be able to find the topic statement or to make
one for each paragraph. These statements taken
PARAGRAPHS 277
together constitute an outline and bring the whole
subject before you in a brief, comprehensive form.
Since this is true, a very good way to study your
lessons in other subjects, as well as in English, is to
make such an outline consisting of the topic state-
ments of the paragraphs studied.
Not only is the topic sentence useful in helping
the reader to get the thought; it is even more useful
in helping the writer to keep to his subject and to
write clearly. Therefore in all your writing form a
topic sentence for each paragraph and keep this
fixed in mind as you write.
159. Position of the Topic Statement. The topic
statement usually stands at the beginning or near
the beginning of the paragraph. It may, however,
be delayed until the middle or even the end of the
paragraph, and it may occupy more than one sen-
tence. Sometimes it is stated at the beginning and
again in a different form at the end, for the purpose
of emphasis.
EXEBCISE 42
1. In each of the following paragraphs point out the
topic statement, noting its position in the paragraph. If
the topic statement is not expressed, form your own.
Account for its position.
(1) This hard work will always be done by one kind of man ;
not by scheming speculators, nor by soldiers, nor professors,
nor readers of Tennyson; but hymen of endurance, — deep-
chested, long-winded, tough, slow and sure, and timely. The
farmer has a great health, and the i^petite of health, and means
278 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
to hk endt he has bnad laadt for Ills home, wood tolmni I
firaiy ^^taa^ of pban food ; hk mOk et least is imwaterad; sad
for sleep, he has cheaper and better and more of it than
He has grave tmsls confided to him. In the great hoosehold
of Natore, the farmer stands at the door of the bread-room and
wogfas to each his loaL The farmer is a hoarded capital of
health, as the farm is the capital of wealth ; and it is from him
that the health and power, moral and intelleetoal, of the cities
came. The ei^ is always reeroited from the eoontiy. The men
in cities who are the centers of energj, the driving-wheels
of trade, politics, or practical arts, and the women of beantj
and genius are the children or grandchildren of formers, and are
spending the energies which their fathers' hardy, silent life ao-
comulated in frosty farrows, in poverty, necesnty, and dsrVness
Emkbsos : Society and SoUtude^ '^ Farming/*
(2) I know nothing in the world tenderer than the pity that
a kind-hearted yooog girl has for a yonng man who feels lonely.
It is true that these dear creatores are all compassion for eveiy
form of haman woe, and anxious to alleviate all human mis-
fortunes. They will go to Sunday-schools, through storms their
brothers are afraid of, to teach the most unpleasant and intract-
able classes of little children the age of Methuselah and the di-
mensions of Og the king of Bashan's bedstead. They will stand
behind a table at a im all day until they are ready to drop,
dressed in their prettiest clothes and their sweetest smiles, and
lay hands upon you, — to make you buy what you do not want,
at prices which you cannot afford ; all this as cheerfully as if it
were not martyrdom to them as well as to you. Such is their
love for all good objects, such their eagerness to sympathize
with all their suffering fellow-creatures ! But there is nothing
they pity as they pity a lonely young man.
BoLMxa: The Foet at the Breakfast Table.
PARAGRAPHS 279
(3) Finally, Grenilemen, there was in the breast of Washings-
ton one sentiment so deeply felt, so constantly uppermost, that
no proper occasion escaped without its utterance. From the let-
ter which he signed in behalf of the Convention when the Con-
stitution was sent out to the people, to the moment when he put
his hand to that last paper in which he addressed his country-
men, the Union, — the Union was the great object of his thoughts.
In that first letter he tells them that, to him and his brethren of
the Convention, union appears to be the greatest interest of eveiy
true American ; and in that last paper he conjures them to re-
gard their anity of government which constitutes them one peo-
ple as the very palladium of their prosperity and safety, and the
security of liberty itself. He regarded the union of these states
less as one of our blessings, than as the great treasure house
which contained them all. Here, in his judgment, was the great
magazine of all our means of prosperity ; here, as he thought,
and as every true American still thinks, are deposited all our
animating prospects, all our solid hopes for future greatness. He
has taught us to maintain this union, not by seeking to enlarge
the powers of the government, on the one hand, nor by surren-
dering them, on the other ; but by an administration of them at
once firm and moderate, pursuing objects truly national, and
carried on in the spirit of justice and equity.
Websteb: Works.
(4) A man's life is more than his work ; his dream is ever
greater than his achievement ; and literature reflects not so much
man's deed as the spirit which animates him ; not the poor thing'
that he does, but rather the splendid thing that he ever hopes to
do. In no place is this more evident than in the age we are now
studying. Those early sea kings were a marvelous mixture of
savagery and sentiment, of rough living and of deep feeling, of
splendid courage and the deep melancholy of men who know
their limitations and have faced the onanswerad problem of
280 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
death. Thej were not simply fearless freebooters who harried
every coast in their war galleys. If that were all, they would
have no more history or literature than the Barbary pirates, of
whom the same thing could be said. These strong fathers of ours
were men of profound emotions. In all their fighting the love of
an untarnished glory was uppermost ; and under the warrior's sav-
age exterior was hidden a great love of home and homely virtues,
and a reverence for the one woman to whom he would presently
return in triumph. So when the wolf hunt was over, or the des-
perate fight was won, these mighty men would gather in the
banquet hall, and lay their weapons aside, there where the open
fire would flash upon them, and there listen to the song of Scop
and Gleeman, — men who could put into adequate words the
emotions and aspirations that all men feel but that only a few
can ever express :
Music and song where the heroes sat —
The glee-wood rang, a song uprose
When Hrothgar's scop gave the hall good cheer.
LoKa : English Literature*
(6) Why, then, do we hesitate to swell our words to meet
our needs ? It is a nonsense question. There is no reason. We
axe simply lazy ; too lazy to make ourselves comfortable. We let
our vocabularies be limited, and get along rawly without the re-
finements of human intercourse, without refinements in our own
thoughts; for thoughts are almost as dependent on words as
words on thoughts. For example, all exasperations we lump to-
gether as " aggravating," not considering whether they may not
rather be displeasing, annoying, offensive, disgusting, irritating,
or even maddening; and without observing, too, that in our
reckless usage we have burned up a word which might be con-
venient when we should need to mark some shading of the word
^increase." Like the bad cook^ we seize the frying-pan when*
PARAGRAPHS 281
ever we need to fry, broil, roast, or stew, and then wonder why
an onr dishes taste alike while in the next honse the food is
appetizing. It is all unnecessary. Enlarge the vocabulary. Let
any one who wants to see himself grow, resolve to adopt two
new words each week. It will not be long before the endless
and enchanting variety of the world will begin to reflect itself in
his speech, and in his mind as welL I know that when we use
a word for the first time we are startled, as if a fire-cracker went
off in our neighborhood. We look about hastily to see if any one
has noticed. But finding that no one has, we may be emboldened.
A word used three times slips off the tongue with entire natural-
ness. Then it is ours forever, and with it some phase of life
which had been lacking hitherto. For each word presents its
own point of view, discloses a special aspect of things, reports
some little importance not otherwise conveyed, and so contrib-
utes its small emancipation to our tied-up minds and tongues.
Palmer : Setf-Cultivation in Engliah.
(6) ^' Of making books there is no end," complained the
Preacher; and did not perceive how highly he was praising let-
ters as an occupation. There is no end, indeed, to making books
or experiments, or to travel, or to gathering wealth. Problem
gives rise to problem. We may study forever, and we are never
as learned as we would. We have never made a statue worthy
of our dreams. And when we have discovered a continent, or
crossed a chain of mountains, it is only to find another ocean
or another plain upon the further side. In the infinite universe
there is room for our swiftest diligence and to spare. It is not
like the works of Carlyle, which can be read to an end. Even
in a corner of it, in a private park, or in the neighborhood of a
single hamlet, the weather and the seasons keep so deftly chang-
ing that although we walk there for a lifetime there will be
always something new to startle and delight us.
Stbvbnson ; El Dorado.
282 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
2. Find paragraphs in your reading which illustrate
(a) The omission of the topic statement. (Supply one
of your own.)
(&) The topic statement at the beginning of the para-
graph.
(c) The topic statement toward the middle of the
paragraph.
(d) The topic statement at the end of the para-
graph.
(e) The topic statement repeated.
8. Write the topic statements for the quotations given
on pages 277-281.
4. Using the following as topic statements, develop the
paragraphs.
(a) I have made observations about the birds of this locality.
(b) The remembrance of my undeserved punishment is . . .
(c) His patience under the circumstances was remarkable.
(d) The books (or studies) boys (or girls) especially enjoy
are of this sort.
(e) Children in Grandmother's time were quite different.
(/) There are several advantages of public schools over
boarding schools.
5. Bring to class a list of topic statements which you
have found when preparing other lessons for to-day.
6. Choosing a poem with which you are somewhat famil-
iar, reproduce it. First divide the poem into its logical
thought divisions. These probably will not correspond to
its stanza divisions.
7. From paragraphs read to you by your teacher, write
the topic statement.
8. Select a paragraph to read to the class. Omit the
topic statement when you read it, and let the class supply
the topic statement
PARAGRAPHS 283
i6o. Unity in fhe Paragraph. Ton hav^ observed
tihat a paragraph must have a single definite topic.
Unity demands that every sentence in the paragraph
relate to this topic, that all details be grouped about
the central idea expressed in the topic statement, and
that only those details necessary to its development
be included.
To secure unity, (1) fix your mind upon the cen-
tral idea and frame carefully a topic sentence, and
(2) determine before you begin to write just what
you are going to put into your paragraph. It would
be well to outline the material and test each detail
to assure yourself that it is to the point. Finally, de-
termine whether or not you have included everything
essential to making your paragraph a complete unit.
The test for unity is to sum up the paragraph in
a single phrase or sentence. If this cannot be done,
it is evident that the paragraph has more than one
topic and hence does not have unity.
i6i. Coherence in the Paragraph. The second es-
sential quality of the paragraph is coherence, which
requires that the sentences be so closely related that
each grows out of the one immediately preceding
and leads easily to the one following. In order that
the paragraph may read smoothly, there must be no
break from sentence to sentence.
Coherence is secured (1) by a careful arrangement
of material, that is, by bringing together those mat-
ters which are closely connected in thought; and
(2) by making use of connective words^ and words
284 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
of repetition or of reference, which form the tran*
sition from sentence to sentence. Such transition
words are
and, then, for, bat, farther, besides, moreover, nevertheless,
while, the following, however, thas, again, on the contrary, on
the other hand, there, in brief, therefore, in a word, hence,
though, in fact,
and pronouns referring back, and many other similar
expressions. Sometimes the repetition of a word
serves to connect two sentences; sometimes the repe-
tition of thought affords the connection.
Note such transition words in the following para*
graph:
Blue is the natural color of both water and ice. On the gUuden
of Switzerland are found deep shafts and Idkes of beautiful bltie
water. The most striking example of the color of water is prob-
ably that furnished by the Blue Grotto of Capri, in the Bay of
Naples. Capri is one of the islands of the Bay. At the bottom
of one of its sea-cliffs there is a small arch, barely sufficient to
admit a boat in fine weather, and through this arch yon pass
into a spacious cavern, the walls and water of which shimmer
forth a magical blue light. This light has caught its color from
the water through which it has passed. The entrance, as just
stated, is very small ; so that the illumination of the cave is al-
most entirely due to light which has plunged to the bottom of
the sea, and returned thence to the cave. Hence the exquisite
azure. The white body of a diver who plunges into the water
for the amusement of visitors is also strikingly affected by the
colored liquid through which he moves.
Tyndall: New Fragments.
PARAGRAPHS 286
A close transition from paragraph to paragraph,
too, is necessary so that there will he no hreak in
thought. Thus the whole composition gains coher-
ence and reads smoothly. The transitional devices
are the same as those used between sentences. Each
paragraph begins with a word, phrase, or clause, or
even a sentence, which refers to something expressed
in the preceding paragraph — at the very close of the
preceding paragraph usually.
In the following opening sentences of paragraphs,
note the words which obviously refer to what has
been said immediately before.
(1) These, Sir, are my reasons for not entertaining that high
opinion of untried force. • • • But there is still behind a third
consideration concerning this object. . • .
In this character of the Americans, a love of freedom is the
predominating feature. • • .
They were further confirmed in this pleasing error by the
form of their provincial legislative assemblies. . . .
If anything were wanting to this necessary operation of the
form of government, religion would have given it complete
effect.
BuBKE : On Conciliation.
Note also the following closing lines of one para*
graph and the opening sentence of the next :
(2) We now ascended a dark, narrow staircase, and, passing
through a second door, entered the library.
I found myself in a lofty antique hall, the roof supported by
massive joists of old English oak.
iBViNa : The Sketch Book.
286 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
(3) Ab I looked around upon the old volumes in their mould-
ering coYors, thus ranged on the shelves, and apparently never
disturbed in their repose, I could not but consider the library a
kind of literary catacomb, where authors, like mummies, are
piously entombed, and left to blacken and moulder in dnsly
obliyion.
How much, thought I, has each of these volumes, now thrust
ande with such indifference, cost some aching head I how many
weaiy days ! how many sleepless nights !
Lftvnra: The Sketch Book.
(4) '* I presume he soon sunk into oblivion.'*
'< On the contrary," said I, '^ it is owing to that very man that
the literature of his period has experienced a duration beyond
the ordinary term of English literature."
iBViKa : The Sketch Book.
Sometimes, especially in introductory paragraphs,
the last sentence is anticipatory, looking forward to
the next paragraph. Thus the two paragraphs are
brought closely together, as in the following intro*
ductory sentence and the sentence marking the divi-
sion of the subject.
(1) Sir, if I were capable of engaging you to an equal attention,
I would state that, as far as I am capable of discerning, there
are but three ways of proceeding relative to this stubborn spirit
which prevails in your colonies and disturbs your government.
These are to change that spirit as inconvenient by removing the
causes ; to prosecute it as criminal ; or to comply with it as
necessary. . • •
The first of these plans • • • I think, is the most like a sys*
tematic proceeding.
Bubke: On Conciliation*
PARAGRAPHS 287
(2) For all books are divisible into two classes, the books of
the hour, and the books of all time. . . •
The good book of the hour, then, — I do not speak of the bad
ones, — is simply the usefol or pleasant talk of some person
whom you cannot otherwise converse with, printed for you.
Ruskin: Of Kings* Treasuries.
162. TTnity and Coherence in the Whole Composi-
tion. When several paragraphs unite to form a whole
composition, not only must there be unity within
the paragraph, but there must also be unity and
coherence in the whole composition. To this end,
each paragraph must relate to the subject under dis-
cussion, and must show a thought connection with
the main topic of which the composition as a whole
treats.
Exercise 43
1. Prove that the paragraphs you wrote for Ex. 4 in
Exercise 42 (p. 282) have unity and coherence. Can you
improve them in either unity or coherence ?
Note. In addition to the list of words given in § 161, the fol-
lowing will be helpful in securing coherence:
At lengthy in addition tOy not onlj/y but alsoy in spite ofi
similarly^ in like manner^ meanwhile^ the foregoing, accord'
inglyy consequently, in shorty tooy stilly likeunsCyfor this reasony
after all thisy now, as a resuUy so, so that.
2. In the selections from various writers given in suc-
ceeding chapters, point out transition and connecting
words between sentences ; between paragraphs. Can you
add any words to the list given in Ex. 1 ?
8. From the complete list of transition words, make out
a classification based on the related meanings of the
288 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
words. Thus, some of them are restrictive ; others, sum-
marizing or anticipatory ; or indicative of cause, efiEect, ne-
gation, etc
4. Bring to class two paragraphs which seem to yon
particularly strong from the standpoint of unity and co-
herence. Show how each quality is secured.
5. Find in a newspaper examples of paragraphs which
violate the laws of unity and coherence* Also find viola-
tion of unity and coherence in a composition as a whole,
where the parag^phs do not grow the one into the next
and do not all relato closely to the subject under discus-
sion.
163. Paragraph Development. There are many
ways of developing paragraphs, the method being
determined by the nature of the thought to be ex-
pressed. A complete classification of the methods
of paragraph development would be impossible. It
is helpful, however, to study certain characteristic,
well-defined methods which writers employ more or
less consciously.
164. Development by Added Details and Particu-
lars. Certain types of topic statement are logically
developed only by adding the particulars and de-
tails called for in the topic statement. For example,
in the quotation given below, the topic statement
^^ But all these conditions of life changed even while
we watched them," promises the particulars of the
changed condition, and is developed by the accumu-
lation of these details. The descriptive paragraph
is largely developed in this way, the details being
presented in some logical order. (See § 72, p. 116.)
PARAGRAPHS 289
The narrative paragraph also uses this method, in-
troducing the added incidents or events in their time
order.
Bat all these conditions of life changed even while we watched
them. Neighboring places thickened up on the prairie. Towns
eame nearer, and bridges and roads appeared. The far horizon
lost its smooth prairie-line, and was notched with houses and
trees. The procession on the road was fuller than ever, but it did
not pause so often. We seldom saw the rounded canvas top of
a mover-wagon at our gate now, and trudging peddlers gave way
to glib agents. The sudden little huny and flurry caused by the
arrival of unexpected guests or pathetic wayfarers occurred less
and less often. Hospitality became a matter of choice, not a
requirement of bare humanity. The glamour of the highway
passed ; the Boad became merely a road. And we, alas and alas !
grew up.
Mabqabet Lykn: A Prairie Caravansery.
Exercise 44
1. Among the quotations given in other chapters, find
examples of paragraphs developed by adding particulars
and details.
2. In the following selections point out the particulars
and details which develop the topic statement. What are
the words in the topic statement which promise details ?
(1) Spring, while we are writing, is complete. The winds have
done their work. The shaken air, well tempered and equal-
ized, has subsided ; the genial rains, however thickly they may
come, do not saturate the ground beyond the power of the sun
to dry it up again. There are clear crystal mornings ; noons of
blue sky and white cloud ; nights, in which the growing moon
seems to lie looking at the starsy like a young shepherdess at her
290 mCB SCHOOL ENGLISH
floek. A few nights ago she lay gaziog in this manner at die
solitary evening star, like IXana» on the slope of a yalley , iook«
ing np at Endymion. His yoong eye seemed to sparkle ontnpon
the world ; while she, bending inwards, her hands behind her
head, watched him with an enamored dumbness.
Lbigh Hunt: ^'Spring and Daisies'' in Essays.
(2) The masterfol wind was np and ont, shooting and chaong^
the lord of the morning. Poplars swayed and tossed with a
roaring swish ; dead leayes sprang aloft, and whirled into spacer
and all the clear-swept heaven seemed to thrill with sound Uka
a great harp. It was one of the first awakenings of the yeaiw
The earth stretched herself, smiling in her sleep ; and every-
thing leapt and poised to the stir of the giant's movement. With
ns it was a whole holiday ; the occasion a birthday — it matters
not whose. Some one of ns had had presents, and pretty con-
ventional speeches, and had glowed with that sense of heroism
which b no less sweet that nothing has been done to deserve it.
Bat the holiday was for all, the raptare of awakening Natoro
for all, the varioos oat-door joys of paddles and son and hedgp-
breaking f or alL
Kenneth Grahamk; The CMden Age.
(3) Hilary followed a path through the meadows, with cafan
bright sunset casting his shadow over the shorn grass, or np in
the hedge-road, or on the brown banks where the drought had
struck. On his back he carried a fishing basket, containing his
bits of refreshment ; and in his right hand a short springy rod, the
absent sailor's favorite. After long council • , • he had made up
his mind to walk up stream, as far as the spot where two brooks
met, and formed body enough for a fly flipped in very carefully to
sail downward. Here he began, and the creak of his reel and the
swish of his rod were mosic to him, after the whirl of London life.
Blagsmobb; Aline Lorraine
PARAGRAPHS 29t
8. Develop the following topic statements by givmg pav-
tieulars and details. When these are narrative in char-
acter, follow if possible the time order ; when descriptive,
follow space order or the order of importance.
(a) I shall never forget the happiest day of my life.
(b) We opened the gate and stepped into a quaint old-
fashioned garden.
(c) We enjoyed a most exciting escapade.
(d) The first time I met the man I knew he was a man of
determination. His face showed it.
(e) The village looked altogether different after the rain.
(/) It was a disappointment to me from beginning to end.
(g) I know a most interesting old historic place.
{h) Country life has an abundance of healthful pleasures.
(i) The experiences of Washington's army at Valley Forge
were terrible.
165. Development by Specific Instances or Ex-
amples. When a general statement is set forth in
the topic sentence^ it is often developed either by
citing specific instances of its truth or of the princi-
ple involved, or by giving as illustration a single ex-
ample worked out in detail. The specific instances
or illustrations serve as proof; the single example
or amplified illustration serves to make more clear
and vivid the general truth or principle.
Study the following :
(1) Great numbers of fireflies are ordered for display at
evening parties in the summer season. A large Japanese guest-
room usually overlooks a garden ; and during a banquet or other
evening entertainment, given in the sultry season, it is customary
to. set fireflies at liberty in the garden after sunset, that the vis*
282 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
2. Find paragraphs in your reading which illustrate
(a) The omission of the topic statement. (Supply one
of your own.)
(6) The topic statement at the beginning of the para-
graph.
(c) The topic statement toward the middle of the
paragraph.
(d) The topic statement at the end of the para-
graph.
(e) The topic statement repeated.
8. Write the topic statements for the quotations given
on pages 277-281.
4. Using the following as topic statements, develop the
paragraphs.
(a) I have made observations about the birds of this locality.
(b) The remembrance of my undeserved punishment is . . .
(e) His patience under the circumstances was remarkable.
(d) The books (or studies) boys (or girls) especially enjoy
are of this sort.
(e) Children in Grandmother's time were quite different.
(f) There are several advantages of public schools over
boarding schools.
5. Bring to class a list of topic statements which you
have found when preparing other lessons for to>day.
6. Choosing a poem with which you are somewhat famil-
iar, reproduce it. First divide the poem into its logical
thought divisions. These probably will not correspond to
its stanza divisions.
7. From paragraphs read to you by your teacher, write
the topic statement.
8. Select a paragraph to read to the class. Omit the
topic statement when you read it, and let the class supply
the topic statementt
PARAGRAPHS 283
i6o. Unity in the Paragraph. Ton hav^ observed
that a paragraph must have a single definite topic.
Unity demands that every sentence in the paragraph
relate to this topic, that all details be grouped about
the central idea expressed in the topic statement, and
that only those details necessary to its development
be included.
To secure unity, (1) fix your mind upon the cen-
tral idea and frame carefully a topic sentence, and
(2) determine before you begin to write just what
you are going to put into your paragraph. It would
be well to outline the material and test each detail
to assure yourself that it is to the point. Finally, de-
termine whether or not you have included everything
essential to making your paragraph a complete unit.
The test for unity is to sum up the paragraph in
a single phrase or sentence. If this cannot be done,
it is evident that the paragraph has more than one
topic and hence does not have unity.
i6i. Coherence in the Paragraph. The second es-
sential quality of the paragraph is coherence, which
requires that the sentences be so closely related that
each grows out of the one immediately preceding
and leads easily to the one following. In order that
the paragraph may read smoothly, there must be no
break from sentence to sentence.
Coherence is secured (1) by a careful arrangement
of material, that is, by bringing together those mat-
ters which are closely connected in thought; and
(2) by making use of connective words, and words
294 mon SCHOOL ENGLISH
words 80, 80 that, accordingly, as a result, there'
fore, consequently, the effect is, and the like will be
found useful.
Note the following :
The isolated life of the plantation was unknown in New Eng-
land ; the small farmer was within soand of the charch hell and
within reach of a schoolhoase. There were many causes for this
concentration of population. Some were natural or physical
causes, some sprang from the purposes and character of the
colonists. The chief reasons were the following : The long and
dreary winter of New England brought the people together for
companionship and protection. The soil was poor, and yielded
its crops only to the diligent toiler; it did not by its fertility
beguile man to easy agriculture ; he was tempted to become a
trader or a mechanic. Since the sea was more fruitful than the
land, little fishing villages dotted the coast. The rivers 'were
many of them rapid and narrow, well suited to turn the mill
wheel, but not serving as highways from the sea. For a century
before the Revolution the Indian was a constant source of fear,
and this dread induced the frontiersman not to move too far
from the village and the common defences. Moreover, the early
settlers were men of intense religious conviction and purpose ;
they came to worship together, and in consequence the first set-
tlements were clustered around the meetinghouse. In many in«
stances, too, the people had been moved by a common interest
to emigrate from '^ dear England," and they therefore settled
together as a community to live out together a common life.
The town was, as a consequence, almost from the outset the
most noticeable thing in the social and political structure of the
colony.
McLAuaHLiN: A History of the American Nation.
PARAGRAPHS 295
Exercise 46
1. Bring to class an example of a paragraph devel-
oped by stating the results of a cause given in the topic
stateihent ; one developed by stating the causes of the re-
sult given in the topic sentence.
2. Develop the following statements into paragraphs
by explaining the effects, causes, or reasons, of the facts
mentioned:
(a) The battle of was a decisive battle.
(b) Education, to be of any value, must be systematic.
(c) The colonists were dissatisfied with England's treatments
(d) Mountain ranges and forests have great influence upon
climate.
(e) Postal savings banks are of great usefulness.
(f) Good roads in any country produce far-reaching results.
(g) People have come to realize the necessity of good sanitary
conditions, especially in the overcrowded tenement districts.
(h) Manual training (or domestic science) has come to be a
very important subject in the school curriculum.
167. Development by Comparison and Contrast.
Sometimes a topic may best be presented by the use
of comparison and contrast stated either positively
or negatively. When an idea is unfamiliar, it may
be made clear by telling what it resembles or in
what respects it differs from ideas already known
and understood. The writer seeks something which
the reader understands and, using this as a starting
point, proceeds to make clear various points of sim-
ilarity or difference. In making use of this method,
avoid introducing details not strictly within the field
of comparison.
296 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
The following paragraph is developed by this
method:
Now their separate characters are briefly these : The man's
power is active, progressive, defensive. He is eminently the
doer, the creator, the discoverer, the defender. His intellect is
for speculation and invention ; his energy for adventare, for
war, and for conquest, wherever war is just, wherever conquest
necessary. But the woman*s power is for rule, not for battle, —
and her intellect is not for invention or creation, but for sweet
ordering, arrangement, and decision. She sees the qualities of
things, their claims, and their places. Her great function is
Praise: she enters into no contest, but infallibly judges the
crown of contest. By her office and place, she is protected from
all danger and temptation. The man in his rough work in the
open world must encounter all peril and trial : to him, there-
fore, must be the failure, the offense, the inevitable error: often
he must be wounded or subdued ; often misled ; and always
hardened.
Buskin. Sesaws and Lilies.
Exercise 47
1. Find paragraphs illustrating development by means
of comparisons and contrasts. Point out the comparisons
and contrasts.
2. By means of comparison or contrast, or a combina-
tion of the two, develop paragraphs from the following :
(a) Life is a voyage.
(b) Books as companions.
(c) Politics is a game with a large element of chance.
{d) There are marked differences between the work of the
grade school and that of the high schooL
if) Hie boyhood days of Lincoln and Washington.
PARAGRAPHS 297
(/) The methods and characteristics of two men prominent
in the political world.
(ff) Summer and winter amusements.
(h) What our grandmothers read.
(i) The reading of novels is increasing.
i68. Development by Repetition. It often happens
that, when a statement is not understood, the same
thought expressed in other words becomes intelli-
gible. This process suggests another method of
paragraph development. The topic statement is re-
peated in other words until the precise meaning is
apparent. Repetition may be for one of two pur-
poses, emphasis or clearness. Each sentence, how-
ever, should do more than merely repeat the thought
of the topic statement. It should add something to
the idea expressed therein, making it more definite
or more emphatic; otherwise the paragraph becomes
monotonous. The process of repetition is similar to
definition and is often used together with definition.
The following is an example of paragraph de-
velopment by repetition and definition. What other
method is combined with it?
From this illustration it would appear that taxes are private
property taken for puhlic purposes ; and in making this state-
ment we come yerj near the truth. Taxes are portions of pri'
vate property which a government takes for its public purposes.
Before going farther, let us pause to observe that there is one
other way, besides taxation, in which government sometimes
takes private property for public purposes. Beads and streets
are of great importance to the jgeneral public ; and the govern-
288 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
words. Thns, some of them are restrictive ; others, sum-
marizing or anticipatory ; or indicative of cause, efiEect, ne-
gation, etc
4. Bring to class two paragraphs which seem to yon
particularly strong from the standpoint of unity and co-
herence. Show how each quality is secured.
5. Find in a newspaper examples of paragraphs which
violate the laws of unity and coherence. Also find viola-
tion of unity and coherence in a composition as a whole,
where the paragraphs do not grow the one into the next
and do not all relato closely to the subject under discus-
sion.
163. Paragraph Development. There are many
ways of developing paragraphs, the method being
determined by the nature of the thought to be ex-
pressed. A complete classification of the methods
of paragraph development would be impossible. It
is helpful, however, to study certain characteristic,
well-defined methods which writers employ more or
less consciously.
164. Development by Added Details and Particu-
lars. Certain types of topic statement are logically
developed only by adding the particulars and de-
tails called for in the topic statement. For example,
in the quotation given below, the topic statement
^^ But all these conditions of life changed even while
we watched them/* promises the particulars of the
changed condition, and is developed by the accumu-
lation of these details. The descriptive paragraph
is largely developed in this way, the details being
presented in some logical order. (See § 72, p. 116.)
PABA6SAPHS 289
The narrative paragraph also uses this method, in-
troducing the added incidents or events in their time
order.
Bat all these conditions of life changed even while we watched
them. Neighboring places thickened up on the prairie. Towns
eame nearer, and bridges and roads appeared. The far horizon
lost its smooth prairie-line, and was notched with houses and
trees. The procession on the road was fuller than ever, but it did
not pause so often. We seldom saw the rounded canvas top of
a mover-wagon at our gate now, and trudging peddlers gave way
to glib agents. The sudden little huny and flurry caused by the
arrival of unexpected guests or pathetic wayfarers occurred less
and less often. Hospitality became a matter of choice, not a
requirement of bare humanity. The glamour of the highway
passed ; the Boad became merely a road. And we, alas and alas !
grew up.
Mabgabet Lynn: A Prairie Caravansery.
Exercise 44
1. Among the quotations given in other chapters, find
examples of paragraphs developed by adding particulars
and details*
2. In the following selections point out the particulars
and details which develop the topic statement. What are
the words in the topic stateoient which promise details ?
(1) Spring, while we are writing, is complete. The winds have
done their work. The shaken air, well tempered and equal-
ized, has subsided ; the genial rains, however thickly they may
come, do not saturate the ground beyond the power of the sun
to dry it up again. There are clear crystal mornings ; noons of
blue sky and white cloud ; nights, in which the growing moon
seems to lie looking at the starS; like a young shepherdess at her
SOO HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
peenliar place in literatare. A ballad has no author. At all
eyents it appears to have none. The teller of the story for the
time being is as mnch the author as the unknown (and for our
purposes unimportant) person who first put it into shape. In
most forms of artistic literature the personality of the writer is
a matter of deep concern to the reader. The style, we say, is the
man. The individuality of one poet distinguishes his works, how-
ever they may vary among themselves, from the works of all
other poets. Chaucer, for instance, has his way, or his ways, of
telling a tale that are not the way, or the ways, of William Mor-
ris. If a would-be creative literary artist has no individuality
that we can detect, we set him down as conventional, and that
is an end of him and of his works. In the ballad it is not so.
There the author is of no account. He is not even present We
do not feel sure he ever existed. At most, we merely infer his
existence, at some indefinite time in the past, from the fact of
his product : a poem, we think, implies a poet ; therefore, some-
body must have composed this ballad. Until we begin to reason,
we have no thought of the author of any ballad, because, so far
as we can see, he has no thought of himself.
ErcTSEDOB : Engliah and Scottish Ballads,
2. Has the paragraph in Ex. 1 unity and coherence?
Why? What is the topic statement?
8. Make a list of ten subjects which you could develop
into paragraphs. Discuss these in class as to the method
of development best suited to each subject.
4. Write three of the paragraphs suggested by the list
of subjects in Ex. 3.
5. Rewrite one of the paragraphs called for in Ex. 4,
using a different method of development. Compare the
two.
6. Study several paragraph&i of any of the Lincoln ad-
dresses or Burke's Speech on Conciliation or one of Macau*
PARAGRAPHS 301
lay's essays, and be prepared to point out to the class
excellencies in transition from paragraph to paragraph and
within the paragraph. What method of transition pre-
dominates in the composition of the author selected? Study
the efiFect produced by the omission of these transitional
expressions.
7. Note the oral paragraphs given in your classes. Are
they unified and coherent ? Report the gist of one which
was not an effective paragraph because the student failed
to begin with a good topic sentence. Bring to class five
topic statements heard recently in a conversation or in an
address or sermon.
8. Write two paragraphs contrasting the characters of
two people whom you know or whom you have met in your
reading.
9. Write a paragraph developed by definition and ex-
ample or illustration. Suggested topics :
(a) Comedy.
(b) Neutralization.
(c) Indictment.
(d) Revenue.
(e) Efficiency.
(/) Socialism.
10. After deciding what method would be best suited to
each topic, develop two or more of the following :
(a) Students generally choose their courses wisely.
(b) Mere wishing does not coustitate actual desire.
(c) California has all kinds of climate.
(d) Education should do more than train the mind.
(e) Many people complain that the predictions of the weathei
bureau are not trustworthy.
(/) The printing and binding of books has become a fine
art
302 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
(^) Groing out of the beaten coarse in order to shorten the
voyage and thus make a record trip, as is frequently
done by ocean steamers, is i^^tteoded with great danger.
(h) Arbitration will eyentoally settle all disputes and do away
with war
(t) '< Paying too much for the whistle " is the common lot.
{j) Politics will be at their best only when the best citizens
feel themselves responsible for the present state of
affairs.
(k) A grate fire and a good book can counteract the cheer-
lessness of the worst of weather.
11. Write paragraphs of description on the following
topics, accumulating specific details in accordance with
some definite plan :
(a) In the October woods.
{b) A midsummer storm.
(c) A holiday crowd.
(d) The old inn.
(e) A wharf.
(/) Alone in the house.
(g) An interesting old shop.
(h) A masquerade.
12. Develop into paragraphs one or more of the follow-
ing, choosing that method of paragraphing which best
suits the topic :
(a) My interests during the past ten years have been of many
different kinds.
{b) The old-fashioned grandmothers with their lace caps
and busy knitting needles are rarely seen in these 'days
of hurry and bustle.
(c) One of the greatest engineering feats the world has ever
known is the building of the Panama Canal.
PARAGRAPHS 303
(d) A genius is a man who • • •
(e) '^ Spring comes forth with shy and hesitating steps."
(/) ^ith the coming of the automobile, the question of good
roads is enlarged.
(g) The Wild West of the Indian, the buffalo, and the cow-
puncher is entirely of the past.
CHAPTER XI
CRITICISM
170. What is Literature 7 In a broad, literal sense,
all writing is literature — history, science, poetry,
fiction, all recorded language. In a narrower sense,
that writing which seeks chiefly to record facts and
to spread and preserve information — such as cata-
logues, records, history, science, textbooks of any
kind — is distinguished from literature. This recital
of fact may, of course, become the basis for literary
effort, since all genuine literary work must rest on a
basis of fact. But the mere statement itself is not
necessarily and intentionally literary. On the other
hand, if the purpose of the writer is to portray life
and to give pleasure, the result is likely to be litera-
ture. The life portrayed must reflect experiences and
emotions common to all times and places. The form,
moreover, must be artistic, giving pleasure by its
proportion, by its beauty of phrase, and by its har-
mony of sound. It must appeal to all time and to
many places; the writing must, in fact, have univer*
sal qualities in order to become literature.
A piece of writing that appeals to succeeding
generations is a classic in its own language; and
one that appeals to different nations throughout
many generations is a world classic. Thus we may
CRITICISM 805
name Tennyson's Idylls of the King and George
Eliot's Adam Bede among English classics, while
among the world classics are the Hiad^ Goethe's
Fausty the Bible, Don Quixote, and Shakespeare's
dramas.
171. What is Criticism? The purpose of criticism
is the understanding of literature and the enjoy-
ment of the literary form. The life portrayed, the
subject matter of the book, may be involved in ex-
periences and emotions that are obscure or unknown.
Criticism undertakes their interpretation. The life
may be expressed in characters whose actions are
puzzling and whose habits are strange. Criticism
should be able to clarify and explain, and try the
actions portrayed by the touchstone of reality. Or
again, life may be represented through the conflict
of passions, or the balancing of emotions. Criticism
will weigh the purposes and determine character by
the springs of action.
Criticism always tries to penetrate the inner and
hidden secrets of the life portrayed. The reader
seeks to identify universal truth and beauty with
particular forms of truth and beauty within his own
experience ; that is, you cannot get full value out
of a piece of writing until you have weighed and
measured it by your own experience and emotions.
Criticism at its best is therefore severely personal
to each reader; but our personal criticism is greatly
aided by the criticism of others who can bring great
thoughts, great motives, and deep emotions within
306 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
our grasp. Sometimes, too, our minds do not respond
to certain appeals until some critic has made ua
sensitive to peculiar phases of thought and feeling ;
for g^eat literature is profound and infinite in its
appeal. We draw from it only to the extent of our
individual capacities for thought and feeling.
With an understanding of the matter of litera-
ture, should come a sensitiveness for its external
beauty of form. The structure of a piece of writing
should be such that all parts contribute to the gen-
eral-effect. If you do not feel the unity of form in
sentence, paragraph, and chapter, your pleasure is
only partial at best. Tour criticism searches for this
unity and, having found it, makes possible a keener
enjoyment of the whole. Beauties of phrase may
escape your attention, either because the metaphor
is new and strange, or because you cannot penetrate
its thought. You should cultivate, in reading, the
power to mark each unusual turn of thought and to
dwell upon each well-turned phrase. Great literature
abounds in striking metaphors. Even common words
acquire new meanings as they pass through the mint
of great minds. There is a happy mating of familiar
words to form eternal phrases. Pope, Milton, Shake-
speare, Tennyson, and many others have contributed
beauties of expression to our language :
The feast of reason and the flow of soul. — Pope.
The sessions of sweet, silent thought. — Shakespeabb.
The ba£9ing eastern scout, the morn. — Miltoia.
CRITICISM 307
In notes with many a winding bont
Of linked sweetness long drawn oat. — Milton.
The short and simple annals of the poor. — Gray.
Men may rise on stepping-stones
Of their dead selves to higher things. — Tennyson.
This beauty of phrase is worthy of careful study j
as your understanding deepens^ your pleasure as a
reader increases. These phrases often refuse to yield
their full measure of enjoyment until their beauty of
form and grandeur of thought are revealed. It is^
then, the purpose of literary study to bring to the
reader's attention the excellence of form and con-
tent, to lead the way for the uninitiated by inviting
him to hear, to see, to understand, to enjoy.
172. The Matter and the Form. Criticism has to
do with both subject matter or sentiment, and the
form. You may ask regarding the contents of liter^
ature whether it is true to life. The purpose of the
author will determine how far his writing shall
be faithful to real life, how far it shall construct an
ideal of life ; and it is the critic's function to dis-
cover the author's purpose through his work.
When the author has formulated his purpose, it
still remains to choose the literary form. The work
should assume that form which is best suited to con-
vey the thought with a maximum of ease and pleas-
ure to the reader. A book on the science of agri-
culture, for example, should not be cast in poetic
form. Character delineation cannot be accomplished
308 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
adequately by verbal description alone; the dia-
logae and action of the drama are better suited for
this purpose. Descriptive writing is well adapted to
express the beauties of inanimate nature. In so far
as the reader insists upon harmony between form
and content, he is establishing for himself a fine
sense of discrimination. The uncritical reader may
lose himself in the reaches of thought or in the intri*
€acies of form, but thoughtful reading shows their
interrelation and thereby proves its value.
173. The Standard of Judgment. A correct taste
for literary excellence is partly instinctive, partly ac-
quired. Some capacity for the enjoyment of beauty
in language must be innate. It is safe to say that no
one is without all sense of value in words. Rhythm,
cadence, imagery, give pleasure to the dullest and
least cultivated. Upon this native sensitiveness may
be built a standard of trustworthy judgment through
wide reading. Much reading makes comparison
possible. As experience with life deepens and know-
ledge of human nature increases, it becomes contin-
uously more easy to judge whether a book squares
with the truth. The right standard of literary judg-
ment must therefore rest in genuine, first-hand ex-
perience with life as well as in voluminous reading.
The poet Pope's directions are excellent :
Toa then whose judgment the right course would steer.
Know well each ancient's proper character }
His fable, subject, scope in every page;
Religion^ country; genius of his ages
CRITICISM 309
Without all these at, once before your eyes,
Cavil yoa may, but never criticise.
Be Homer's works your study and delight,
Read them by day, and meditate by night ;
Thence form your judgment, thence your maxims bring,
And trace the Muses upward to their spring.
Pope : Essay on Criticism.
174. The Author's Personality. Behind every
piece of writing is a life^ a person, a man or woman.
The particular view of life portrayed by any book
depends largely upon the personality of the writer.
Great writing lays open a broad view of life com-
mon to all men, but this universal life must come to
the reader through the individual life of the author.
He can represent life only as he has experienced life.
Every mood, every passion, every emotion, every
motive, is measured in terms of his personal experi-
ence before he embodies it in the imaginary person
of the printed page. The test of reality therefore
goes home to the personality of the author. Artifi-
cial moods, borrowed motives, sham passions, and
unreal emotions, which are ascribed to characters,
betray themselves readily. They lie unattached in
the pages of literature without becoming integral
parts of the characters to whom they are ascribed.
The writer need not be, probably rarely is, in the
particular mood which he assigns to a character at
the time he writes ; but he must intimately know
the mood in order to make it real in his character.
The thoughtful reader demands of the people
810 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
within books that their lives shall be consistent;
that their characters shall have sufficient basis ; that
their motives shall result in logical action ;.and that
their actions shall have sufficient motive. This im-
press of genuineness can come only through contact
with the author's own personality.
175. Biography and Criticism. In reading, then,
it is important to know much about the writer's per-
sonality, about his experiences, his character, his
training, his view of life, and his purpose in writing.
Such knowledge will illuminate any author's work,
because all literature is in some degree autobio-
graphical, and some is wholly so. The biography of
Dickens is largely contained in his David Copper'
fields and Carlyle's condition of bodily health is the
only adequate explanation of much that he wrote.
So completely do men write themselves into their
books that where we have lost the records of their
lives, as in the case of Homer or Shakespeare, we
boldly proceed to reconstruct their lives out of their
books. But the greatest writers have succeeded in
concealing their personal histories in the universal
life. These are our great books. Homer, the man, is
barely more than a myth ; Shakespeare, the man, is
little known. These great natures have mirrored
the universal experiences of mankind so that a re-
construction of their lives results in a superman.
176. The Experiences of the Writer. Those events
of which we have been an integral part, give us
knowledge, ideas, memories, and emotions. A per-
CRITICISM 311
son who has always lived in luxury has no experi-
ence, no personal memories, no concrete ideas^
about a life of abject poverty. Such a book as Up
from Slavery must come out of an experience like
that of Booker T. Washington, who has traveled
the road described. Whittier's Snowbound came
out of a New England experience. Cooper's Sea
Tales could come only out of an extended career
at sea ; and The Legend of Sleepy Hollow could
come only out of an intimate acquaintance with
Dutch legends and Dutch life. Experience gives
knowledge; and knowledge, quickened by imagi-
nation, creates literature. There was creative power
behind the experience that made Tennyson's In
Memoriam possible. When the fertile imagination
sets up new and ideal combinations from actual ex-
periences, it becomes the power that produces liter-
ature.
177. The Character of the Writer. Two writers
may use the same experiences as a basis of literary
effort, yet differ widely in the treatment. This vari-
ation in the result is due to the difference in the
character of the authors. Any creative writing is
the product of experience and character. The charac-
ter of the writer will determine what incidents he
will select from a multitude of events for portrayal.
The same subtle, personal force will determine the
peculiar interpretation these selected incidents shall
have, and where the points of emphasis shall be
laid. In proportion^ then^ as the writer is serious or
812 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
friyolous, broad or narrow, noble or petty, will the
product be great or trivial.
The great poet oftentimes has lived his great
poems. The great dramatist fashions his great char-
acters out of the manifold phases of his own great
character. Nobility and truth have been character-
istic of the world's great writers. Plato, Milton,
Wordsworth, Tennyson, Goethe, Longfellow, Emer-
son, were all men of high character. Brilliancy of
diction and skill in rhetorical refinement must fash-
ion the formal beauty of literature ; and to some
this is the whole of literature. But diction and
rhetorical skill alone cannot supply the great ele-
ments of strength which character gives. Alexander
Pope, Lord Byron, and Heinrich Heine, each had
brilliancy and skill, but lacked somewhat the high
character that produces the abiding qualities of great
literature. Great books usually have their root in
great and good men.
178. The Writer's View of Life. All literature
portrays some phase of human life. Since this life
has infinite variety, no one book can adequately pic-
ture all of it or much of it. Each writer selects those
elements which he understands. He upholds those
theories which are true and real to him. For these
reasons it is extremely important to know what views
are held by the writer of the book you read. You
will ask of Milton, What is the meaning of human
existence ? Of Wordsworth, What is the meaning of
nature? Of Spencer, Whence came this universe?
CRITICISM 313
And each gives his answer through his work in ac-
cordance with his view of life. The cheer of Steven-
son and the gloom of Carlyle find explanation in the
same way ; the former, in spite of suffering, saw Uf e
through the optimist's eyes; the latter was often
without hope. One writer may believe that, on the
whole, good triumphs over evil ; another will main-
tain that evil must ultimately prevail ; and their writ-
ings will be unintelligible until you get at their point
of view.
The experiences which supply the materials out
of which a writer creates his men and women, are
modified by his philosophy of life. If his philosophy
is prevalently sane, his favorite creatures will be
hopeful, cheerful, and constructive. His men and
women will seek to benefit their time and place in
accordance with high ideals. If his philosophy is
morbid, his favorite creatures are likely to be de-
spondent and cynical. His men and women will em-
phasize the sad features of life without seeking the
amelioration of the common lot. The writer's phi-
losophy of life gives tone to his book.
179. The Purpose of the Writer. It is the busi-
ness of criticism to find out the purpose of the writer^
whether it is earnest or playful, serious or satirical^
didactic or entertaining. The author may be classi-
fied as Moralist, Humorist, Satirist, Realist, or Ideal-
ist. The Moralist proposes to teach, his lesson being
right conduct. His characters and incidents all point
a moral. The Humorist selects his incidents from the
314 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
foibles of mankind, and by gentle homor and happy
characterization seeks to show the fanny side of
things. His prime object is to give pleasure, but the
moral is always involved. Without the moral, such
writing becomes nonsense. The Satirist likewise seeks
his incidents from the weaknesses of mankind, but
he seeks to warn against them by exaggerating them.
He teaches by showing horrible examples and gives
pleasure by the keenness of his wit. The Realist pre-
sents life as it is. He is faithful to the reality, be-
lieving that we learn by honestly facing the facts of
life. He gives pleasure by his fidelity to detail, but
pleasure is secondary to truth. The Idealist repre-
sents life as it ought to be, believing that the errors
of real life will be corrected and avoided when man
knows the ideal truth and right. Clearly, then, liter-
ature must be judged in the light of the author's
purpose.
i8o. The Mood of the Writer. A work may be
conceived in mirth, as was " L* Allegro '* by MUton
and The Autocrat of the Breakfast Tahlehj Holmes.
Or it may be conceived in piety, as was The Vision
of Sir Launfal by Lowell ; in seriousness, as was " II
Penseroso '' by Milton ; or in deep religious mood, as
was Paradise Lost. The critic must seek to enter
into the mood in which the writer planned the work.
i8i. Impenrsonal Writing Impossible. No writer
can wholly detach himself from his creations. His
characters are necessarily conceived in the light of his
own experiences; and their emotions are necessarily
CRITICISM Slfr
emotions that have at some time been comprehended
by him. Man is a multitude of personalities. In
thought^ he is in succession hero, villain^ idiot^ savant^
mere man^ and superman. What he is at any given
time depends upon the composite of circumstances
bearing upon his character. He can for this reason
create from his multiple personality a series of char-
acters by running the gamut of emotions and trans-
ferring them to his creatures. But himself he can-
not detach. All writing is intensely personal^ never
wholly impersonal. It is autobiographical when the
author is confining himself wholly to his prevailing
personality or to his best conception of himself.
When he is revealing his ideal self or his conquered
self, his writing will appear more detached^ but it
will not be impersonal.
182. Style. Every mature writer has well-defijied
habits of expression. He shows individuality in his
speech^ by using certain words and phrases in a way
that is characteristic of him. A phrase receives the
stamp of his workmanship by a peculiar meaning.
Preference is shown for certain synonyms, or a word
receives an individual use. These uniform variations
from the speech of other persons give distinction to
his work. We say of a quotation from a writer whom
we know, " It sounds just like him." That is, we rec-
ognize a word or phrase or turn of thought that is
peculiar to him. This peculiarity of language by which
we recognize the individual writer, is called style.
It has been said that ^^ The style is the man." Style
S16 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
is the habit of the writer. We speak of a clear style^
Vk forceful style, an attractive style, an ornate style,
a great style. We mean that the writer expresses
himself clearly ; that he habitually uses forceful lan-
guage ; that his language is characteristically pleas-
ing; that he uses many picturesque and striking
words. In a great style, or " grand style," the thought
moves rapidly, always aided and never hindered by
the language ; the imagery of words is elevated and
individual ; the language is simple ; the ideas clearly
expressed. Style will be according to the habits of
thought, growing unconsciously out of the writer's
individuality through free and natural self-expres-
sion.
183. Syntax and Grammar. Criticism will sharply
insist upon grammatical correctness.
Exercise 50
1. Criticisms are given below of Shakespeare, Milton,
and George Eliot. Familiarize yourself with the lives of
these authors, and determine, so far as you can, whether
the criticisms are just :
(a) Does the critic try to bring out the truth?
(6) Does he help you to understand the author?
(c) Does he criticise the matter or the form?
(d) Is the criticism broad or petty?
(e) Is his judgment sound ?
(f^ Has the critic brought out the author's personality?
(jg) Does he understand the author's point of view?
His purpose?
(A) Is the critic's standard of judgment correct?
CRITICISM 317
(1) Emerson on Shakespeare.
Shakespeare has no peculiarity, no importunate tope; but
all is duly given ; no views, no curiosities ; no cow-painter, no
bird fancier, no mannerist is he : he has no discoverable ego-
tism ; the great he tells greatly ; the small, subordinately. He is
wise without emphasis or assertion ; he is strong as nature is
strong, who lifts the land into mountain slopes without effort^
and by the same rule as she floats a bubble in the air, and likes
as well to do the one as the other. This makes that equality
of power in farce, tragedy, narrative, and love-songs ; a merit
so incessant, that each reader is incredulous of the perceptiou
of other readers.
(2) Samuel Johnson on Milton.
One of the poems on which much praise has been bestowed, is
^< Lycidas " : of which the diction is harsh, the rhymes uncertain,
and the numbers unpleasing. What beauty there is we must there-
fore seek in the sentiments and images. It is not to be considered
as the effusion of real passion : for passion ruus not after remote
allusions and obscure opinions. Passion plucks no berries from
the myrtle and ivy, nor calls upon Arethuse and Mincius, nor
tells of rough satyrs and ^' fauns with cloven heeL" Where there
is leisure for fiction, there is little grief.
(3) Edward Eggleston on George Eliot.
What peculiarities of George Eliot's are likely to leave a
strong impress after her ? I answer, she, of all novelists, has at-
tacked the profound problems of our existence. She has taught
that the mystery worthy of a great artist is not the shallow mys-
tery device, but the infinite perspective of the great, dark enig-
mas of nature ; that there is a deeper interest in human life seen
in the modem, scientific daylight, than in life viewed through a
mist of ancient and dying superstitions ; that the interest of
human character transcends the interest of invented circum-
stances ; that the epic story of a hero and a heroine is not so grand
818 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
ms the natural history of a community. She, first of all, has made
cross sections of modem life, and shown us the busy human hive
in the light of a great artistic and philosophic intellect.
(4) Addison on Milton.
It is requisite that the language of an heroic poem should be
both perspicuous and sublime. In proportion as either of these
two qualities b wanting, the language is imperfect Perspicuity
is the first and most necessary qualification ; insomuch that a
good-natured reader sometimes overlooks a little slip even in the
grammar or syntax, where it is impossible for him to mistake
the poet's sense. Of this kind is that passage in Milton^ wherein
he speaks of Satan, —
Grod and his son except,
Created thing nought valued he nor shnnnedi^
«nd that in which he described Adam and Eve,—
Adam the godliest of men since bom
His sons, the fairest of her daughters Eye.
(5) Johnson on Shakespeare.
Shakespeare is, above all writers, at least above all modem
writers, the poet of nature ; the poet that holds up to his readers
a faithful mirror of manners and of life. His characters are not
modified by the customs of particular places, unpracticed by the
rest of the world ; by the peculiarities of studies or professions,
which can operate but upon small numbers ; or by the accidents
of transient fashions or temporary opinions : they are the genu*
ine progeny of common humanity, such as the world will al-
ways supply, and observation will always find. His persons act
and speak by the influence of those general passions and princi-
ples by which all minds are agitated, and the whole system of
life is continued in motion. In the writings of other poets a
character is too often an individual : in those of Shakespeare
it is commonly a species.
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CRITICISM 319
2. BnDg to class criticisms of recent books. Weigh the
criticism and determine its value.
3. Make a list of papers and periodicals in which book
reviews and literary criticism find regular place.
4. Bring to class a specimen of dramatic criticism from
your daily paper, and be prepared to defend it or to cor-
rect it.
Exercise 51 .
1. Below are given quotations from Milton, Goldsmith,
Addison, and Irving. Familiarize yourself with the chief
points of interest in the lives of these authors. Determine
the following points of criticism so far as they apply to
each passage :
(a) What is the author's purpose : to please ? to in-
struct? to persuade?
(&) Is the mood serious, satirical, playful, gloomy?
(c) Do you recognize the author's personal experience?
(d) What is shown concerning his character?
(e) What is the view of life, hopeful or despondent?
(/) Is the style notably clear, obscure, forceful, ornate,
pleasing, heavy, rapid, striking ?
(^) Is the form suited to the sentiment?
(A) Is the sentiment true ?
(1) When I consider how my light is spent
Ere half my days, in this dark world and wide.
And that one talent which is death to hide
Lodged with me useless, though my soul more bent
To serve therewith my Maker, and present
My true account, lest he returning chide ;
^ Doth God exact day-labor, light denied ? "
I fondly ask. Bat Patience, to prevent
That murmoT; soon replies, ^^ God doth not need
320 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
Either man's work or his own g^fts. Who best
Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best His state
Is kingly : thousands at his bidding speed,
And post o'er land and ocean without rest ;
They also serve who only stand and wait"
MiLTOK : On his Blindness.
(2) Sweet was the sound, when oft at evening's close
Up yonder hill the village murmur rose ;
There, as I passed with careless steps and slow.
The mingling notes came softened from below ;
The swain responsive as the milkmaid sung,
The sober herd that lowed to meet their young ;
The noisy geese that gabbled o'er the pool.
The playful children just let loose from school ;
The watchdog's voice that bayed the whispering wind.
And the loud laugh that spoke the vacant mind ;
These all in sweet confusion sought the shade.
And filled each pause the nightingale had made ;
But now the sounds of population fail,
No cheerful murmurs fluctuate in the gale.
No busy steps the grass-grown footway tread.
For all the blooming flush of life is fled.
Goldsmith: The Deserted Village.
(3) We were separated by a storm in the latitude of seventy-
three, insomuch that only the ship which I was in, with a Dutch
and French Vessel, got safe into r^ creek of Nova Zembla. We
soon observed, that in talking to one another we lost several of
our words, and could not hear one another at above two yards
distance, and that too when we sat very near the fire. After much
perplexity, I found that our words froze in the air, before they
could reach the ears of the persons to whom they were spoken. I
was soon confirmed in this conjecture, when, upon the increase
CRITICISM 321
of the cold, the whole compaDj grew dumb, or rather deaf; for
every man was sensible, as we afterwards found, that he spoke
as well as ever ; but the sounds no sooner took air than they were
condensed and lost. It was now a miserable spectacle to see as
nodding and gaping at one another, every man talking, and no
man heard.
We continued here three weeks in this dismal plight. At
length, upon a turn of wind, the air about us began to thaw»
Our cabin was immediately filled with a dry clattering sound,
which I afterwards found to be the crackling of consonants that
broke above our heads, and were often mixed with a gentle
hissing, which I imputed to the letter 8. I soon after felt a
breeze of whispers rushing by my ear ; for these immediately
liquefied in the warm wind that blew across our cabin. These
were soon followed by syllables and short words, and at length
by entire sentences, that melted sooner or later; so that we now
heard everything that had been spoken during the whole three
weeks that we had been silerUf if I may use that expression*
The whole crew was amazed to hear every man talking, and see
no man opening his mouth. In the midst of this great surprise
we were all in, we heard a volley of oaths and curses uttered in
a very harsh voice, which I knew belonged to the boatswain, who
had taken his opportunity of cursing and swearing at me, when
he thought I could not hear Mm.
I must not omit the names of several beauties, which wer^
heard now and then, in the midst of a long sigh that accom-
panied them; as, "Dear Kate!" "Pretty Mrs. Peggy!"
" When shall I see my Sue again ! " This betrayed several
amours which had been concealed until that time, and f umbhed
US with a great deal of mirth in our return to England.
Addison : " Frozen Words," adapted from The Tatler.
(4) Oh, the grave ! the grave ! It buries every error, covert
every defecty extinguishes every resentment From its peaceful
822 mOH SCHOOL ENGLISH
bosom none bat fond regretf and tender reeoSeetions. Who can
look down upon the grave even of an enemy, and not feel a
compunctions throb that he shoold ever have warred with the
poor handful of earth that lies mouldering before him ? But the
grave of those we loved, — What a place for meditation ! There
it is we call up, in long review, the whole history of virtue and
gentleness, and the thousand endearments lavished upon us, al-
most unheeded, in the daily intercourse of intimacy ; there it is
that we dwell upon the tenderness, the solemn, awful tenderness
of the parting scene.
WAflHIKGTON iBVlNa.
2. Bead the Oettysbnrg Address. Write a criticism
following the outline suggested above in 1 (a)-(A).
8. Bring to class an editorial which merits adverse
oriticism.
4. Select a poem from the magazines of the current
month, and determine whether it is likely to hold an im-
portant place in our body of English poetry.
5. Criticise a short stoiy selected from recent magazine
literature.
6. Make a list of modem authors with whose works yoa
are familiar.
(a) Which writer is most autobiographical ? Most true
to life?
(b) Which of these books are likely to become English
classics ?
(c) Which writer has the sanest view of life?
7. Name one or more plays that appear to you to be
well constructed. Criticise the sentiments and the devel-
opment of the action.
8. Name the points of weakness in the so-called yellow
fiction. Has it any points of strength?
CHAPTER Xn
LITERARY FORMS
184. Early Beginnings. Literature has been an
early achieYement of those nations which have ex-
celled in it. The book of Genesis antedates all our
knowledge of the history of the Hebrew nation ; the
Hiad and the Odyssey grew out of the life of
Greece long before its recorded history begins; the
Nibelungen Lied is the mythical song of prehistoric
Germany; and the Beowulf takes us back before the
dawn of English history. In these nations a lov^
for song and story appeared before written language
was known ; their songs and stories have been per-
petuated by oral tradition and have later received
Ld forms in writing and print.
185. The Literary Impulse. Two impulses are be-
hind all literature : a keen desire for self -expression^
and a love for beauty of form.
The sentiments that form the body of literature
rest broadly upon human character and experience.
(See pp. 310-311.) What we are, what we fed,
what we give and receive in social intercourse, what
is awakened in us by natural surroundings — what-
ever enters into our experiences becomes a part of
ourselves. Imagination seizes upon our consciousr
ness to mold and quicken. Then comes the instine-
324 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
tive desire to recreate and express. Man longs to
share his emotions^ his fancies, his thoughts, his
aspirations, — he longs to give himself to others be-
cause he is social. This desire for self-expression is
the spring of literature.
It is a notable fact that the earliest literary re-
mains of every people are in the form of poetry.
This seems to show that early literature was closely
related to music. Self-expression was first rhythmic,
and therefore literature was first poetry. Emotion
entered into self-expression as a matter of course,
and this determined the form of expression. We
may readily believe that the pleasure of the hearer,
as well as that of the singer or reciter, consisted in
large measure in the form of expression — the
rhythm, cadence, and even intonation. On this
pleasure in external beauty of form is based literary
workmanship; out of it has grown a variety of liter-
ary forms, each developed and perfected by art to
please first the hearer and in later day the reader.
i86. Forms of Poetry. Both sentiment and art
have helped to shape the forms of poetry. The sen-
timent demands a harmonious form in which thought
and feeling and beauty may come to fullest expres-
sion. This seeking after the fittest form for the body-
ing forth of poetic feeling has given rise to three
great poetic forms: lyric, epic, and dramatic. Under
the lyric we have as subdivisions the ode^ the aonnety
and the elegy. Under the epic we have as subdi-
visions the natural epic^ the literary qnc, the metri'
LrrERAET FORMS 325
cal romance, and the ballad; and under the dror
matic we have the dramatic lyric, the dramatic nar-
rative, and the drama.
187. Lyric Poetry. Lyric poetry is essentially per-
sonal. Its sentiments are from the emotions^ pas-
sions, and virtues of mankind, expressed in terms
of the writer's own personality. We therefore have
lyrics on love, duty, joy, sorrow, patriotism, despair.
It is characteristic of the lyric form to be brief and
concise; and the sentiment must be noble and
sincere.
As examples of the lyric form you should study
the following:
Milton: "L'Allegro," « H Penseroso."
Burns : « To a Mountain Daisy," " Highland Mary.'*
Wordsworth: "To a Skylark," "The Poet's Mind."
Coleridge: "ChristabeL"
SheUey: " Indian Serenade,'* "The Cloud," " To a Skylark.*'
Keats: "Endymion."
Tennyson: "The Beggar Maid," "On Milton," "Crossing
the Bar."
Browning: " Evelyn Hope."
1. TTie Ode is a song addressed to some noble
character or virtue. In form it varies from the defi-
nite classic model followed by Gray in his Pindaric
ode " Awake, ^olian Lyre " to the irregular form
used by Wordsworth in his ^^ Ode on the Intimations
of Immortality."
( 1) Awake, .Solian lyre, awake.
And giye to rapture all thy trembling strings.
m mefl SCHOOL fiKonsa
From Helicon's harmonions springs
A thousand rills their mazy progress take t
The laughing flowers, that round them hlow.
Drink life and fragrance as they flow.
Now the rich stream of music winds along,
Deep, majestic, smooth, and strong,
Thro' verdant vales, and Ceres' golden reign :
Now rolling down the steep amain,
Headlong, impetuous, see it pour:
The rocks, and nodding groves re-bellow to the roar.
Gbat.
(2) Our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting :
The Soul that rises with us, our life's Star*
Hath had elsewhere its setting,
And Cometh from afar :
Not in entire f orgetf ulness.
And not in utter nakedness,
But trailing clouds of glory do we come
From GU>d/ who is our home :
Heaven lies about us in our infancy !
Shades of the prison-house begin to close
Upon the growing Boy,
But he beholds the light, and whence it flows^
He sees it in his joy ;
The Tenth, who daily farther from the east
Must travel, still is Nature's Priest,
And by the vision splendid
Is on his way attended ;
At length the Man perceives it die away.
And fade into the light of common day.
WosDSWOBTH : Ode an the Intimaiiom of ImrruyrtalUy.
trtERA.BY FOEMS 327
Lowell's " Memorial Ode " and Van Dyke's ^^ Ode
to Music" should be compared as to form.
2. The Sonnet (see § 236, 6, p. 371) is a lyric of
fourteen lines. The Italian sonnet is regular in the
extreme, while the so-called Shakespearean sonnet is
irregular and free in form. As examples of the sonnet,
study Milton's sonnet "On his Blindness" (p. 319)
and the following :
How do I love thee ? Let me count the ways.
I love thee to the depth and breadth and height
My soul can reach, when feeling out of sight
For the ends of Being and ideal Grace.
I love thee to the level of every day's
Most quiet need, by sun and candle-light.
I love thee freely, as men strive for Bight ;
I love thee purely, as they turn from Praise.
I love thee with the passion put to use
In my old griefs, and with my childhood's faith.
I love thee with a love I seemed to lose
With my lost saints, — I love thee with the breath.
Smiles, tears, of all my life ! — and, if God choose,
I shall but love thee better after death.
Elizabeth Babbbtt Brownino : Sonnets from the Portuguese.
3. The Elegy is a lyric of mourning. It may con-
tain a personal tribute to the object of mourning \
it may be severely melancholy ; or again it may use
the figurative shepherd's pipe of mourning which is
also called a pastoral elegy. Originally an elegy
meant any poem using the elegiac meter, which con-
sists of two verses of dactyhc hexameters (see | 232^
828 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
9, p. 368) of which the second has an awkward
pause in the middle, due to the cutting o£E (catalexis)
of the last syllable of the third foot. The last foot
of the second verse is also catalectic. The modem
elegy ignores this metrical restriction. As an example^
note the following:
On thb Death of the Fobt Thohson
In yonder grave a druid lies,
Where slowly winds the stealing wave ;
The year's best sweets shall dnteoos rise
To deck its poet's sylvan grave.
Then maids and yonths shall linger here,
And, while its sounds at distance swell,
Shall sadly seem in pity's ear
To hear the woodland pilgrim's knelL
And see — the fairy valleys fade ;
Dun night has veiled the solemn view I
Yet once again, dear parted shade.
Meek nature's child, again adieu !
The genial meads, assigned to bless
Thy life, shall mourn thy early doom ;
Their hinds and shepherd-girls shall dress.
With simple hands, thy rural tomb.
Long, long, thy stone and pointed clay
Shall melt the musing Briton's eye :
O vales and wild woods ! shall he say,
In yonder grave your druid lies !
WiLUAM Coi/Lnre.
LITERART FORMS 329
As examples of the elegy, stady Milton's "Lyci-
das" and Gray's "Elegy written in a Country
Churchyard."
i88. Epic Poetry. An epic poem is a narration
of an extended series of events so related that they
make a connected story. Narration is the charac-
teristic feature. The story is partly told hy the char*
acters themselves. This gives dramatic interest and
vividness.
1. The Natural JE}pic is evolved out of the folk-
songs and legends of a people, and comes into
being as an expression of national sentiment and
story. This was true of the Iliad and the Odyssey y
the Nihelungen Lied and the Beowulf. Each cele-
brates the deeds of national heroes and weaves about
them the songs and legends which had become the
traditional possession of the country.
2. The Literary Epic is an imitation of the natu-
ral epic. It is worked out by the literary artist, who
invents most of the incidents and fashions many of
the songs and legends, all on the great models of the
natural epic.
As examples of the literary epic, we have Milton's
Paradise Lost and Arnold's Sohrab and Eustum.
Pope's Rape of the Lock is a mock epic. Long-
fellow's Hiawatha may be freely classed as an epic,
although it is not wholly faithful to the classical
models.
3. The Metrical Romance is a narrative poem
treating of knighthood, adventure^ and love. The
330 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
best available examples are Tennyson's Idylls of the
King, LoweH's Vision of Sir Launfal, and Scott's
Marmix>n. Study the Vision of Sir Launfal as a
model.
4. The Ballad is a short narrative poem. It is
confined to one incident^ and may be compared to
single incidents in any natural epic. It is quite con-
ceivable that such a series of ballads as those which
circle about the deeds of Robin Hood might have
formed a great natural epic; but conscious literary
art has apparently made this impossible now.
As examples of the ballad, study the ballad on
page 109, Longfellow's " Wreck of the Hesperus,"
Browning's "Herv6 Biel," and "Robin Hood's
Death."
5. There are a few poems that cannot be classi-
fied strictly as epics, but may be loosely brought to-
gether under the head of metrical narratives. The
best known are Longfellow's Evangeline ; Gold-
smith's Deserted Village, Meredith's Lucile, and
Saxe's Katrina.
189. Dramatic Toetry. In dramatic poetry the
incidents and actions are all objectified in the char-
acter of the actor. The incident is not related but
is made to occur in our presence; instead of a
description of the motives, details, and results of an
act, we see the act taking place before us. All de-
scriptions in the name of the poet are restricted to
stage directions and are not essential parts of the
poem.
LITERARY FORMS 33i
There are a few poems that are fundamentally
dramatic with strong lyrical characteristics. Hood's
^^ Song of the Shirt " is an example.
Other poems have a marked narrative character.
Coleridge's Ancient Mariner is an illustration.
These may he classed as clearly defined dramatic
poems rather than as dramas.
190. Drama. Drama is a form of writing in which
the characters are made to work out the plot while
the author himself remains hidden from view.
Drama deals with human events, and differs from
narration in that it is designed for production on
the stage, and in that the story is told through
speech and action. If there is a lyrical note, it rests
in the emotions and sentiments of the characters in
the play. The author may speak only through the
actors, thus remaining for the most part concealed.
As a result, the appeal of the drama is immediate,
personal, and concrete.
191. Tragedy. Drama is divided into two main
classes, tragedy and comedy. Tragedy deals with the
serious side of life and represents a conflict between
physical or spiritual forces, the end of which is an
unhappy one. The hero is brought to disaster
through his own misdeeds or faulty judgment.
Tragedy is written preferably in verse ; its theme
requires lofty language. Examples are Shakespeare's
Macbeth and Julius Ooesar.
192. Comedy. Comedy presents a cheerful or
humorous view of life. In this case the conflict is
332 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
not serious ; it is merely amusing and grows out of
the inconsistencies^ weaknesses, and foibles of hu-
manity. The ending is happy, leaving the reader in
a cheerful frame of mind. Because comedy is nearer
to daily life, it is written in simpler language and
oftenest in prose. Examples are Shakespeare's As
You Like Itj Goldsmith's She Stoops to Conquer^
and Sheridan's The Rivals.
193. Tragi-Comedy. A third kind of drama, nei-
ther wholly tragedy nor wholly comedy, is the tragi-
comedy or reconciling drama in which appear some
of the characteristics of both tragedy and comedy.
Its tone is prevailingly serious ; but there are scenes
of a lighter humorous nature to relieve the tension.
A tragic ending is foreshadowed, but forces enter
to avert it and the play ends happily. Examples of
this type of play are Shakespeare's Merchant of
Venice and The Tempest, and Augustus Thomas's
The Witching Hour.
194. Parts of the Drama. In structure the tragedy
is far more orderly than the comedy, in which the
events are often loosely arranged and connected.
The tragedy, as ideally constructed, consists of two
main parts: one consists of the events which pro-
duce the complications of the plot; the other, of
the events which unravel these complications. The
first constitutes the rising movement; the second,
the falling. The climax is the point where the forces
governing the rising movement are overpowered by
the opposing force which, from that point, dominate
LITEBARY FORMS 333
the falling movement. The events leading up to
the climax form two distinct parts : the introduc-
tion and the rising movement. The resolution like-
wise has two parts : the fall of the action^ or falling
movement, and the catastrophe.
195. The Introduction. The function of the in«
troduction is to place hefore the spectator or reader
such circumstances of time, place, or conditions as
are necessary for the understanding of the play; to
introduce the characters ; and to strike the keynote
of the play. The end of the introduction is marked
by the beginning of the action of the play. Note
in Macbeth that the first scene strikes the keynote
of the play, suggesting the weird and supernatural
and a general confusion ; and that the second scene
acquaints the reader with the condition of affairs in
Scotland and introduces the characters. In Julius
Ccesar the introduction fixes the scene and the time,
gives the tone of the action in the quarrel between
the tribunes and the plebeians, and foreshadows the
complications in the conversation between Brutus
and Cassius.
196. The Rising Movement. The rising move-
ment begins when the leading characters receive the
proper stimulus to action — the "exciting force'*
which starts the dramatic conflict. In Macbeth this
consists of Macbeth's meeting with the witches,
when is suggested to him the thought which impels
him to choose his future course of action. In Julius
Ccesar the exciting force which moves Brutus to ac-
334 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
tion is made up of the persuasion of Cassius^ Caesar's
ambition, and Casca's report.
The exciting force once started, the rising move-
ment with its various complications advances, until
the forces which have predominated meet a counter-
force sufficient to check them. In Macbeth the hero
meets with success until Fleance escapes and thus
frustrates his plans. During the rising movement
the opposing forces — Malcolm's flight to England,
Macduff's refusal to attend the coronation — are set
to work. In Julius CcBsar the rising movement
ends just after the assassination of Caesar.
197. The Climax. The moment of highest inter-
est is the climax. It is the turning-point of the plaj ;
the culmination of the rising movement, the end of
the complications, and the beginning of the process
of unraveling. In Julius Ccesar the climax is the
fatal blow struck by Brutus; in Macbeth it is
marked by the report made to Macbeth, ^' Fleance
is 'scaped."
198. The Falling Movement. The falling movement
consists of the preparation for the end of the action.
The hero, who has controlled forces during the ris-
ing movement, here becomes powerless and subject
to the will of fate; the end is foreshadowed. In
Julius CcBsaVj Caesar's spirit as represented in An-
tony, Lepidus, and Octavius, works as an avenging
force. In Macbeth forces foreshadowed by the
ghost of Banquo, by the attitude of Macduff and
the lords of Macbeth's court, and by the change in
LITERARY FORMS 835
fhe witches in their treatment of Macbeth, control
Macbeth's future.
199. The Catastrophe. The catastrophe of the
drama is the end of the action — brief and simple.
The spectator or reader is here satisfied that justice
has been meted out, that the fate of those involved
was inevitable. The death of Brutus atones for the
murder of Caesar; Macbeth pays the penalty of his
own tragic struggle, of his moral disintegration, at
the hands of Macduff.
200. Other Dramatic Forms. Other forms of the
drama are
1. The Farcej a form of comedy consisting of
greatly exaggerated characters involved in situations
which are ridiculous in the extreme.
2. The Miracle Play, a play based upon the lives
of the saints or stories from the Bible, representing
a conflict between human will and divine will.
3. The Morality Play^ a play the purpose of
which was to teach a lesson by means of represent-
ing vices and virtues, personified, in conflict.
4. The Masque^ a simple play usually given as a
court entertainment. It was characterized by simple
plot, pastoral scenes and characters (masked), formal
dances, and songs. Milton's Comus, the finest masque
in the English language, is an example of the masque
at its best, lofty in tone and moral, and perfect in
construction.
5. The Interlude^ 8l simple |)lay, comic in nature,
performed during the intervals of entertainments.
336 mGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
201. The NoveL The novel is the outgrowth of
various forms of Uterature. In order of development,
there came into English literature first, the epic;
second, the romance; third, the drama; fourth, the
essay; and then the novel. The epic depicted the
experiences of human life. The romance intro-
duced an imaginative element and made wonderful
and interesting stories on themes of chivalry, love,
romance, history, or, in fact, on any subject it chose.
The essay took up a wide range of subjects and
adapted a style to the subject, both style and subject
reflecting the personality and interests of the author.
The drama added soul processes and presented man's
emotional experiences. All these contributions to
literature, the novel makes use of, and as a result
it depicts real life by presenting incidents of all kinds,
various phases of character, and human experiences
and interests. Its scope is broad; its possibilities are
boundless ; but however varied, it must be true to life.
202. The Purpose of the NoveL The purpose of
the novel is primarily to amuse. It aims, in addition,
to instruct and to reform. It may present a historical
picture, advocate a certain line of conduct, teach a
moral lesson, picture life as it has been or is, or set
forth an author's views on certain phases of life. It
aims always to interest the reader in the characters
as much as in the plot.
203. The Elements of the Novel. In the develop-
ment of its theme every novel makes use of the same
means: setting, plot, characters, and style.
LITERARY FORMS 337
204* The Setting. The setting of a novel gives the
time and place of the action, and states such other
conditions as are necessary for the understanding of
the period in which the action takes place. It also
supplies an environment^ which helps to explain the
traits of character delineated. The purpose of the set-
ting is to give whatever may be essential to the clear
understanding of the story.
205. The Plot. The plot is the story. It consists
of a series of incidents interrelated and more or less
complex in nature. Often there is more than one plot.
Associated with the main story or plot there is a sub*
plot — a story within a story. Just as in the drama,
the plot in the novel represents a conflict of some
kind, and may be simple or complex, trivial or seri-
ous, comic or tragic. The main requirements of the
plot are that it shall be interesting, original, prob-
able, consistent; that it shall hold the reader in sus*
pense; and shall in the end make satisfactory explana-
tion of all complications and mysteries. Thus you will
see that the relationship between the novel and the
drama is so close that the novel easily lends itself
to dramatization.
206. The Characters. In the novel, some charac-
ters take a more important part than others, just as
in actual life some people are more active and more
essential in the world's progress than others. Char-
acters most important to the development of the plot
are called principal characters; all others, minor.
The minor characters are often introduced merely as
338 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
a setting for the others — character foils, for the
most part. Sometimes they are in themselves inter-
esting personalities. The author acquaints the reader
with his characters in various ways : by what they
themselves do and say; by what others say of them;
by descriptions; and by expositions in which their
distinctive characteristics are analyzed.
207* The Style. The style of a novel means all
that the term means in connection with other forms of
literature (see § 182, p. 315). It includes the author's
diction, his individual, characteristic mode of ex-
pression, and such qualities as humor, pathos, and
strength. The style must adapt itself to the portrayal
of that particular phase of Ufe of which the novel
treats.
Discuss from the standpoint of setting, plot, sub-
plot, characters, and style, one or more of the follow-
ing:
Qtientin DurtoarcL Cranford*
A Tale of Two Cities. David CopperfieUL
The Vicar of Wakefield. Henry Esmond.
Ivanhoe. Silas Mamer.
2o8. The Essay. The essay is a form of prose
composition by means of which the author sets forth
his thoughts and feelings on subjects of interest to
mankinds Bacon defined his essays as '^certain
brief notes set down rather significantly than curi-
ously ; not vulgar, but of a kind whereof men shall
find much in experience and little in books." Essays
deal with ideas and principles; discussing them from
LTTERART FORMS 339
the writer's point of view. The purpose of the essay
is to entertain^ to instruct^ or to reform. It may be
long or shorty formal or informal. The formal essay,
having instruction for its aim, sets forth definite in-
formation in an orderly, accurate manner. Of this
type of essay those of Macaulay, Carlyle, and Emer-
son are notable examples. The author of the formal
essay gives deep thought to his subject, makes use
of the available sources of information concerning
it, and then presents an organized discussion, stating
his own convictions.
The informal essay is the type of essay for which
Addison, Steele, and Lamb are famous. Its charm
lies in the easy manner in which the author states
his meditations concerning mankind, his convictions,
his likes and dislikes, his whims and fancies. In effect
the informal essay is almost conversational.
209. Style in the Essay. Since the essay has a wide
scope in subject matter, dealing with subjects rang-
ing from deep moral questions to those of the mos6
trifling nature, the style must be varied and flexible.
It must have an ease and charm to fascinate the
reader, and a clearness and simplicity that will make
the subject matter readily comprehensible. Moreover,
the style must be in keeping with the thought of the
essay, light and gay, or serious and slow in move-
ment, as the thought is trivial or grave.
210. Classes of Essays. There are four general
classes of essays, as follows :
1. Narrative Ussays^ which relate a series of
340 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
events, as a biography or historical sketch. Examples :
Macaulay 's Warren Hastings, Life of Johnson.
2. Critical Essays, which deal with art and lit-
erature. Examples : LowelFs Among My Books;
Habie's Essays in Criticism.
3. JReflective Essays, dealing with subjects of uni-
versal interest and purposing to instruct. Examples :
the essays of Bacon.
4. Informal Essays, giving the author's individ-
ual ideas and opinions. Examples : Lamb's Essays
ofElia and the essays of Stevenson.
Study the following essay as an example of the
essay form.
Of Studies
Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability. Their
chief use for delight is in prirateness and retiring ; for ornament,
is in discourse ; and for ability, is in the judgment and disposi-
tion of business. For expert men can execute, and perhaps judge
of particulars, one by one ; but the general counsels, and the
plots and marshalling of affairs, come best from those that are
learned. To spend too much time in studies is sloth ; to use them
too much for ornament, is affectation ; to make judgment wholly
by their rules, is the humor of a scholar. They perfect nature,
and are perfected by experience : for natural abilities are like
natural plants, that need proyning, by study ; and studies them-
selves do give forth directions too much at large, except they be
bounded in by experience. Crafty men contemn studies, simple
men admire them, and wise men use them ; for they teach not
their own use ; but that is a wisdom without them, and above
them, won by observation. Bead not to contradict and confute ;
nor to believe and take for granted ; not to find talk and difrr
LTTERART FORMS 341
oonrse ; but to weigh and consider. Some books are to be tasted,
others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and di-
gested ; that is, some books are to be read only in parts ; others
to be read, bat not curiously ; and some few to be read wholly,
and with diligence and attention. Some books also may be read
by deputy, and extracts made of them by others ; but that would
be only in the less important arguments, and the meaner sort of
books ; else distilled books are like common distilled waters,
flashy things. Reading maketh a full man ; conference a ready
man; and writing an exact man. And therefore, if a man write
little, he had need have a great memory ; if he confer litde, he
had need hare a present wit ; and if he read little, he had need
have much cunning, to seem to know that he doth not. Histories
make men wise ; poets witty ; the mathematics subtile ; natural
philosophy deep ; moral grave ; logic and rhetoric able to con-
tend. Abeunt studia in mores (Studies pass into and influence
manners). Nay, there is no stond or impediment in the wit but
may be wrought out by fit studies : like as diseases of the body
may have appropriate exercises. Bowling is good for the stone
and reins ; shooting for the lungs and breast ; gentle walking for
the stomach ; riding for the head ; and the like. So if a man's
wit be wandering, let him study the mathematics ; for in demon-
strations, if his wit be called away never so little, he must begin
again. If his wit be not apt to distinguish or find difiEerences, let
him study the Schoolmen ; for they are cymini sectores (split-
ters of hairs). If he be not apt to beat over matters, and to call
up one thing to prove and illustrate another, let him study the
lawyer's cases. So every defect of the mind may have a special
receipt.
Bacon.
Discuss the essays in a recent nnmber of TTie
Atlantic Monthly or The North American Seview,
342 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
from the standpoint of subject, structure, style, clas-
sification. Compare these with Bacon's " Of Studies,"
and with the essays of Addison and Steele in the
iSir Roger de Coverley Papers.
211. Letters. The "gentle art of letter-writing'*
was a development dating its beginning from the mid-
dle of the sixteenth century. Through the medium
of the letter, great men like Scott, Thackeray, Lowell^
Stevenson, Irving, Dickens, Cowper, Washington^
and Phillips Brooks have given us faithful repre-
sentations of their true selves, and have left choice
compositions worthy of a distinct place among the
forms of literature. Too often the works of writers
of distinction convey a false impression, or at least
do not create the true impression of their personal*
ities and characters; and it is only through their
letters, " their heart's productions," that their real
personalities have been appreciated. The correspond-
ence of Swift, for instance, proves him to be much
more agreeable than his works would lead us to be-
lieve ; and Pope, who was described as a " jealous,
peevish, waspish little man," shows in his letters
many lovable qualities. The writings Lord Chester-
field published have passed almost entirely from the
thought of men, but Lord Chesterfield is known to
us as a distinct personality through his letters.
Since letters give us glimpses into the thoughts,
feelings, and lives of men, they are in themselves
interesting reading, aside from any service they per-
form. In the letters which follow; note that they
LITERARY FORMS 343
reflect the interests and tastes and personalities not
only of the authors but of the recipients as well.
Note also that the distinctive style of each author is
as evident here as in his conscious literary efforts,
and that often the style is the more charming be-
cause of the lack of any conscious effort for self-
expression.
Study these letters and write five letters^ using
these as models.
Jonathan Swibt to Joseph Addison
Dublin, July 9, 1717.
I should bo much concerned if I did not think you were a lit-
tle angry with me for not congratulating you upon being Secre-
tary. But I choose my time, as I would to visit you, when all
your company is gone. I am confident you have given ease of
mind to many thousand people, who will never believe any ill
can be intended to the Constitution in Church or State while you
are in so high a trust ; and I should have been of the same opin*
ion, though I had not the happiness to know you.
I am extremely obliged for your kind remembrance some
months ago by the Bishop of Derry, and for your generous in-
tentions, if you had come to Ireland, to have made party give
way to friendship by continuing your acquaintance. I examine
my heart, and can find no other reason why I write to you now
besides that great love and esteem I have always had for you.
I have nothing to ask you either for any friend or for myself.
When I conversed among Ministers, I boasted of your acquaint-
ance, but I feel no vanity from being known to a Secretary of
State. I am only a little .concerned to see you stand single ; for
344 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
it 18 a prodigions singularity in any court to owe one's rise en-
tirely to merit I will venture to tell yon a secret — that three or
four more such choices would gain more hearts in three weeks
than all the methods hitherto practised have been able to do in
as many years.
It is now time for me to recollect that I am writing to a Sec-
retary of State, who has little time allowed him for trifles. I
therefore take my leave, with assurances of being ever, with the
truest respect, etc,
YoniB,
Jonathan Swift.
n
Samuel Johnson to Lord Chesterfield
to the right honorable the earl of chest erfie ld
February 7, 1765.
My Lord:
I have been lately informed by the proprietor of the World
that two papers, in which my Dictionary is recommended to the
public, were written by Your Lordship. To be so distinguished
is an honor which, being very little accustomed to favors from
the great, I know not well how to receive, or in what terms to^
acknowledge.
When, upon some slight encouragement, I first visited Your
Lordship, I was overpowered, like the rest of mankind, by the
enchantment of your address, and could not forbear to wish that
I might boast myself Le vainqueur du vainqueur de la terre ;
that I might obtain that regard for which I saw the world con-
tending ; but I found my attendance so little encouraged that
neither pride nor modesty would suffer me to continue it When
I had once addressed Your Lordship in public, I had exhausted
all the art of pleasing which a retired and uncourtly scholar can
LITERARY FORMS 345
possess. I had done all that I could ; and no man is well pleased
to have his all neglected, he it ever so little.
Seven years, my Lord, have now passed, since I waited in
your outward rooms, or was repulsed from your door ; during
which time I have heen pushing on my work through difficulties
of which it is useless to complain, and have brought it at last to
the verge of publication, without one act of assistance, one word
of encouragement, or one smile of favor. Such treatment I did
not expect, for I never had a patron before.
The shepherd in Virgil grew at last acquainted with Love, and
found him a native of the rocks.
Li not a patron, my Lord, one who looks with unconcern on
a man struggling for life in the water, and when he has reached
ground encumbers him with help ? The notice which you have
been pleased to take of my labors, had it been early, had been
kind ; but it has been delayed till I am indifferent, and can-
not enjoy it ; till I am solitary, and cannot impart it ; till I am
known, and do not want it. I hope it is no very cynical asperity
not to confess obligations where no benefit has been received,
or to be unwilling that the public should consider me as owing
that to a patron which Providence has enabled me to do for
myself.
Having carried on my work thus far with so little obligation
to any favorer of learning, I shall not be disappointed though I
should conclude it, if less be possible, with less ; for I have been
long wakened from that dream of hope in which I once boasted
myself, with so much exultation.
My Lord,
Your Lordship's most humble,
Most obedient servant,
Sam. Johnbon.
346 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
ni
BKNJAMUf FSANKUN TO GeOBGB WASHmOTOSr
Passyy 6 March, 1780.
Sir:
I haye received bnt lately the letter Tour Excellency did me
the honor of writing to me in recommendation of the Marqais
de Lafayette. His modesty detained it long in his own hands*
We became acquainted, however, from the time of his arrival at
Paris ; and his zeal for the honor of our coantry, his activity in
our affairs here, and his firm attachment to our cause and to you,
impressed me with the same regard and esteem for him that
Your Excellency's letter would have done, had it been immedi-
ately delivered to me.
Should peace arrive after another campaign or two, and afford
ns a little leisure, I should be happy to see Your Excellency in.
Europe, and to accompany you, if my age and strength would
permit, in visiting some of its ancient and most famous king--
doms. You would, on this side of the sea, enjoy the great repo-^
tation you have acquired, pure and free from those little shades
that the jealousy and envy of a man's countrymen andcontempo*
raries are ever endeavoring to cast over living merit. Here yoa
would know and enjoy what posterity will say of Washington,
for a thousand leagues have nearly the same effect with a thou-
sand years. The feeble voice of those groveling passions cannot
extend so far either in time or distance.
At present I enjoy that pleasure for you, as I frequently hear
old generals of this martial country, who study the maps of
America, and mark upon them all your operations, speak with
sincere approbation and great applause of your conduct, and
join in giving you the character of one of the greatest captains
of the age. I must soon quit this scene, but you may live to see
our country flourish, as it will amazingly and rapidly after the
LITERARY FORMS 347
war is over ; like a field of yonng Indian corn, which long fair
weather and sunshine had enfeebled and discolored, and which
in that weak state, by a thunder-gust of violent wind, hail, and
rain, seemed to be threatened with absolute destruction; yet
the storm being past, it recovers fresh verdure, shoots up with
double vigor, and delights the eye, not of its owner only, but
of every observing traveler.
The best wishes that can be formed for your health, honor, and
happiness^ ever attend you from
Yours, etc.,
B. Franklin.
IV
Chables Lamb to William Wobdswobth
January 30, 1801.
I ought before this to have replied to your very kind inviti^
tion into Cumberland. With you and your sister I could gang
anywhere ; but I am afraid whether I shall ever be able to afford
80 desperate a journey. Separate from the pleasure of your
company, I don't now care if I never see a mountain in my life.
I have passed all my days in London, until I have formed as
many and intense local attachments as any of you mountaineers
can have done with dead nature. The lighted shops of the Strand
and Fleet Street, the innumerable trades, tradesmen, and cus-
tomers, coaches, wagons, playhouses ; all the bustle and wick-
edness round Covent Garden ; the watchmen, drunken scenes,
Tattles ; life awake, if you are awake, at all hours of the night ;
the impossibility of being dull in Fleet Street ; the crowds, the
very dirt and mud, the sun shining upon houses and pavements,
the print-shops, the old book-stalls, parsons cheapening books,
coffee-houses, steams of soups from kitchens, the pantomimes—
London itself a pantomime and a masquerade — all these things
348 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
work themsdves into my mind, and feed me widioat a power of
satiating me. The wonder of these sights impels me into night
walks ahout her crowded streets, and I often shed tears in the
motley Strand from fulness of joy at so much life. All these
emotions most be strange to yon ; so are your raral emotions to
me. Bat consider, what mast I have been doing all my life not to
have lent great portions of my heart with nsary to such scenes ?
My attachments are all local, parely local ; I have no passion
—or have had none since I was in love, and then it was the
sparioas engendering of poetry and books — to groves and val-
leys. The rooms where I was bom ; the furniture which has been
before my eyes all my life ; a bookcase which has followed me
about like a faithful dog — only exceeding him in knowledge —
wherever I have moved ; old chairs ; old tables ; streets, squares,
where I have sunned myself; my old school — these are my
mistresses ; have I not enough without your mountains ? I do
not envy you. I should pity you, did I not know that the mind
will make friends of anything. Your sun, and moon, and skies,
and hills, and lakes affect me no more, or scarcely come to me
in more venerable characters, than as a gilded room with tapes-
try and tapers, where I might live with handsome visible ob-
jects. I consider the clouds above me but as a roof beautifully
painted, but unable to satisfy the mind ; and, at last, like the
pictures of the apartment of the connoisseur, unable to afford
him any longer a pleasure. So fading upon me, from disuse, have
been the beauties of Nature, as they have been confinedly called ;
so ever fresh, and green, and warm are all the inventions of men
and assemblies of men in this great city. I should certainly have
laughed with dear Joanna.
Give my kindest love, and my sister's to D. and yourself, and
a kiss from me to little Barbara Lewthwaite. Thank you for
liking my play. C. L.
LITERARY FORMS 349
V
Chables Dickens to Mabk Lemon
H. W. Office, July 2, 1866.
My dear Mark :
I am concerned to hear that you are ill, that you sit down be-
fore fires and shiver, and that yoa have stated times for doing
so, like the demons in the melodramas, and that you mean to take
a week to get well in.
Make haste about it, like a dear fellow, and keep np your
spirits, because I have made a bargain with Stanny and Web-
ster that they shall come to Boulogne to-morrow week, Thursday
the 10th, and stay a week. And you know how much pleasure
we shall all miss if you are not among us — at least for some part
of the time.
If you find any unusually light appearance in the air at
Brighton, it is a distant refraction — I have no doubt — of the
gorgeous and shining surface of Tavistock House, now tran-
ficendently painted. The theatre partition is put np, and is a
work of such terrific solidity that I suppose it will be dug up,
ages hence, from the ruins of London, by that Australian of
Macaulay*s who is to be impressed by its ashes. I have wan-
dered through the spectral halls of the Tavistock mansion two
nights, with feelings of the prof oundest depression. I have break-
fasted there, like a criminal in Pentonville, only not so well. It
is more like Westminster Abbey by midnight than the lowest-
spirited man — say you at present, for example — can well im-
agine. • • •
They will be full of sympathy and talk about you when I
get home, and I shall tell them that I send their loves before-
hand. They are all enclosed. The moment you feel hearty, just
write me that word by post. I shall be so delighted to receive
it Ever, my dear boy,
Your affectionate friend.
850 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
VI
R L. Stevenson to Sidney CoLVnr
Yacht Casco, Anaho Bay, NnkahiTay
Marqaesas Islands (Julj, 1888)*
My dear Colvin ;
From this somewhat — ahem ! — out-of-the-way place I write
to say '^ How d*ye do ? " It is all a swindle : I chose these isles
as having the most beastly population, and they are far better
and far more civilized than we. I know one old chief Ko-o-amua,
a great cannibal in his day, who ate his enemies even as he
walked home from killing *em, and he is a perfect gentleman,
and exceedingly amiable and simple-minded ; no fool, though.
The climate is delightful, and the harbor where we lie one of
the loveliest spots imaginable. Yesterday evening we had near
a score of natives on board ; lovely parties. We have a native
god ; very rare now. Very rare, and equally absurd to view.
This sort of work is not favorable to correspondence : it takes
me all the little strength I have to go about and see, and then
come home and note, the strangeness around us. I should n't
wonder if there came trouble here some day, all the same. I
could name a nation that is not beloved in certain islands — and
it does not know it ! Strange ; like ourselves, perhaps, in India I
Love to ally and much to yourself.
B. L. S.
CHAPTER XIII
FIGURES OF SPEECH
212. Figures Defined. Language is literal or fig-
urative. It is literal when words have their primary
or fundamental meanings. This fundamental mean-
ing usually appeals to the physical senses. You can
^ee a glowing coal ; feel a hard pebble ; taste sweet
cider. That is^ literal words express ideas compre-
hended through the senses. Many words acquire
additional meanings by long use. Vague ideas can
be made vivid by applying literal terms to them.
Thus you bring the idea eloquence into the range of
sight and touch when you say glowing eloquence.
In the same way hard examinations, sweet melody,
express ideas in the familiar terms of touch and
taste. It is, of course, purely imaginative to speak
of music in terms of taste, but when the mind has
grasped the new turn of thought ov figure ^ the feel-
ing of reality gives surprise and pleasure.
A figure of speech occurs when a word is turned
from its ordinary or literal meaning and acquires
an additional meaning hy the turn of thought
213. Common Figures of Speech. The figures of
speech in common use are the simile, metaphor,
personification; apostrophe^ allegory^ metonymy,
S62 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
synecdoche^ and vision. Other rhetorical devicesy
such as interrogation, alliteration^ hyperbole, and
antithesb, are sometimes classed as figures of speech^
214. The Simile. Language always resorts to
comparison in order to make an idea clear. The un-*
known or obscure idea is likened to an idea that is
clear and familiar. When Milton wanted to express
the size of Satan (see below), he could not use ordi*
nary terms of dimension ; he therefore likened him
to a sea-monster which *a often mistaken for an.
island because of his huge size. Every such com-
parison is a simile, — a name which comes from the
Latin word similisy meaning like.
A simile expresses^ hy means of the word like
or as, a resemblance between two objects belong^
ing to different classes^ and limits the likeness to
one point; as,
(1) The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold.
(2) As the hart panteth after the water brooks, so pantetb
my soul after Thee, O God.
(3) His ^pear was like the rnast of a ship.
The Homeric Simile is long and detailed, bring*
ing apparently unnecessary details into the compari*
son. It gives importance to the familiar object by
defining it closely, and thereby the resemblance to
the unfamiliar object becomes more striking and the
simile is made effective; as.
Thus Satan, talking to his nearest mate.
With head uplift above the wave, and eyes
FIGURES OP SPEECH 853
That sparkling blazed ; his other parts besides^
Prone on the flood, extended long and large.
Lay floating many a rood, in bulk as huge
As •••••••••••••
Leviathan, which God of all his works
Created hugest that swim the ocean stream.
Him, haply slumbering on the Norway foam.
The pilot of some small night-foundered skiff
Deeming some island, oft, as seamen tell,
With fixed anchor in his scaly rind.
Moors by his side under the lee, while night
Invests the sea, and wished morn delays.
So stretched out huge in length the Arch-Fiend lay.
Milton : Paradise Lost.
The simple simile would have said ^^ Satan is like
Leviathan." The further details about the Leviathan
being mistaken for an island by which the pilot
moors his skiff, all tend to emphasize the size of
Satan and give the simile marked effectiveness.
215. The Metaphor. Resemblance between two
objects belonging to two different classes may be
implied without using the words like or as in for-
mal comparison. It is possible to express an obscure
idea in terms of what is known. The mind has
pleasure in tracing the implied points of likeness.
A metaphor implies resemblance between two
objects and asserts their identity for the time being;
as,
Before me was a sea of faces.
A man's life is an open book.
It is always possible to convert a metaphor into a
354 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
nmfle by malring the companBoii f onnal^ iimig like
or m; likewise, to conyert a simile into a metaphor
hj drofpDg like or as; as
A man's Vie is like an open book.
1. Metaphorical Language. AH language is to
some extent metaphoricaL Whenever a word is given
an nnosoal meaning or is applied to a new sitaation,
its use is likely to be metaphorical. Observe the nse
of the italicized words below: —
Literal Metaphorical
(a) He wears a Panama ; he wears welL
(b) Build tkhoaae; build a, toitane,
(e) A ship on the harisxm * his mental harizanm
(d) Heated mMLi Aeofecf arguments.
(e) Apple tree; family tree.
(J) Winged creatores; winged words.
(g) Qreen fields ; green memoij.
(h) High moontains ; high spirits.
(i) Flash of electricity; Jlash of wit.
{j) Read books ; read faces.
Similar expressions are ray of hope ;/orc6 of habit;
a mmtf en speech; man of balance; game of politics;
social lionj etc.
2. Mixed Metaphors. A mixed metaphor implies
two incongruous resemblances in the same object at
the same time. It is incorrect to say : The sea of
faces lay before me, thundering approval to the sen-
timents I had expressed.
2x6. Personification. Personification is a particu-
lar use of the metaphort It attributes life and con-
FIGURES OF SPEECH 356
scious purpose to inanimate objects. The figure is
used in prose and poetry, and even in ordinary speech
we resort to it to vivify our language; as, acid
eats; soil drinks ; a building looks ; waves dance;
a flower nods ; the wind whispers. In poetry per-
sonification is a frequent figure. Shelley's "The
Cloud" is one long personification. Milton's poetry
teems with it.
Examples follow :
(1) Sport, that wrinkled Care derides,
And Laiigkter holding both his sides.
(2) Lap me in soft Lydian airs^
Married to immortal verse,
(3) So saying, her rash hand in evil hour
Forth reaching to the fruit, she plucked, she ate!
Earth felt the wound ; and Nature, from her seat
Sighing through all Jier works, gave signs of ime
That all was lost.
(4) Earth fills h^r lap with pleasures of her own ;
Yearnings she hath in her own natural kind.
217. Apostrophe. When a personified object is
addressed as if it were present, the figure is called
apostrophe. In this use the figure is a form of per-
sonification. Byron devotes six stanzas to an apos-
trophe to the ocean, beginning:
Boll on, thou deep and dark blue Ocean, — roll I
and Shelley apostrophizes the skylark in twenty-one
stanzas. Other examples follow:
(1) Yet, Freedom ! Yet thy banner, torn, but flying,
Streams like the thunder-storm against the wind;
356 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
Thy tmmpet voice, thoagh broken now and dying.
The londest still the tempest leaves behind.
(2) Sweet Anbnm ! Loveliest village of the plain.
How often have I loitered o'er thy green.
2i8. Allegory and Fable. When personification is
extended into a story, we have either a fable or aa
allegory. The characteristic feature is continuous
personification. An allegory differs from the apos-
trophe in that it is not an address to the object per*
sonified. The best examples of allegory are Spenser's
The Faerie Queen; Bunyan's The Pilgrim* s Prog*
ress; "Death and Sin," from Canto x of Milton's
Paradise Lost; and Dryden's "The Hind and the
Panther."
A short allegory is called a fable.
219. Metonymy. Metonymy, meaning change o£
name, is a figure of speech by which a thing is
named in terms of a related or associated idea. Its
value Ues in the surprise we feel in seeing the mean**
ing through the associated word, as when we see
the learned judge through the word bench ; or the
beauties of literature in the word letters.
There are several relations by which metonymy is
produced:
1. The sign, for the thing ; as, The scoter shall not
depart from Judah.
2. The container, for the thing contained ; as. The poi
boils.
3. Interchange of cause and effect ; as, His lorath left us
all in gloom.
FIGURES OF SPEECH 357
4. Material, for thing made of it; as, They offered
gold and silver.
5. The place, for the inhabitant; as. The country was
decimated by the war.
220. Synecdoche. When the part Is named for the
whole, or the whole for the part, we have that par-
ticular form of metonymy called synecdoche; as^
The army had 1000 horse and 10,000 /oo^.
It was an excessively warm year (= summer).
221. Vision. When a past event or a distant
event is treated as here and now present, we have
the figure of speech called vision. It is an emphatic
form of speech, especially effective in describing
rapidly moving action, such as a race ; as,
Down the straight track ctyme the runners, scarcely a yard
between the three. Now Jones takes the lead ! He is gaining.
He wins by scarcely a foot.
222. Interrogation. The rhetorical question is
used, not to gain information, but to make emphatic
the opposite of what is asked ; as,
Shall a man rob God ?
223. Alliteration. Alliteration is a mechanical de-
vice to fix the attention on a particular passage. It
is the recurrence of the same consonant sound or
the same initial vowel sound in successive words ; as,
(1) Sweet smiling village, loveliest of the lawn.
(2) Hope humbly then ; with trembling pinions soar.
224. Hyperbole. Hyperbole is exaggerated lan-
guage by which much more is said than is true; as,
358 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
(1) The trembling Tiber dived beneath his bed.
(2) His spear — to eqaal which the tallest pine
Hewn on Norwegian hills, to be the mast
Of some great ammiral, were but a wand.
225. Onomatopoeia. Wlien an author uses words
whose sound is approximately the same as the sense^
the device is called onomatopoeia (from Greek words
meaning to make a name). Some words are onomato-
poetic; as, purr, meow, ahem, swish, whining. An
onomatopoetic line follows :
O the tintinnabulation of the heUs, bells, beUs.
226. Antithesis. Antithesis is a device by which
things are balanced against each other to make the
contrast effective ; as,
(1) Though j9oor, luxuriotis ; though submissive, vain;
Though grave^ yet trifling ; zealous, yet untrue.
(2) 'T is hard to say, if greater want of skill
Appear in writing or in judging ill ;
But, of the two, less dangerous is th' offence
To tire ourpatience^ than mislead our sense.
Exercise 52
1. Bead the following extracts carefully, noting all
figurative language :
(1) He taught us little ; but our soul
Had felt him like the thunder's rolL
With shivering heart the strife we saw
Of passion with eternal law.
Abkold: Byron^s Death.
FIGURES OF SPEECH 359
(2) As, in the countiy, on a mom in June,
When the dew glistens on the pearlM ears,
A shiver runs through the deep corn for joy —
So, when they heard what Peran-Wisa said,
A thrill through all the Tartar squadron ran.
AsNOLD : Sohrcbb and Eustum,
13) I hring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers,
From the seas and the streams :
I bear light shade for the leaves when laid
In their noonday dreams.
Shbllbht : The Cloud.
(4) Teach as, sprite or bird,
What sweet thoughts are thine :
I have never heard
Praise of love or wine
That panted forth a flood of raptnre so divine.
Shelley : To a Skylark*
(5) The harbor-bay was clear as glass,
So smoothly it was strewn!
And on the bay the moonlight lay,
And the shadow of the moon.
CoLBBiDGB : The AneierU Mariner.
(6) Te Clouds ! that far above me float and pause,
Whose pathless march no mortal may control !
Ye Ocean Waves ! that, wheresoe'er ye roll,
Yield homage only to eternal laws !
CoLEBiDQB : Ode to Franee.
(T) A Slumber did my spirit seal ;
I had no human fears :
She seemed a thing that could not feel
The touch of earthly years.
WOEDSWOmTX.
360 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
(8) Neither tJie goepel nor the charch have proposed taxf
eonepieuous recompense to the heroes who fall in the service of
their country. — Gibbon.
(9) The Turkish snltan was desirons of sparing the blood of
his soldiers. — Gibbon.
(10) In Folly's cup still laughs the bubble joy. — Pope.
(11) << The bridge thou seest," said he, <' is Human Life."
Addison: The Vuion of Mirza.
(12) So spake the grisly Terror, and in shape.
So speaking and so threatening, grew tenfold
More dreadful and deform.
Milton: Paradise Lost.
(13) Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowedy
and some few to be chewed and digested. — Bacon : On Studies,
(14) Meanwhile Opinion gilds, with varying rays.
Those painted clouds that beautify our days*
Pope: Essay on Man.
(16) Ay, my good lord : safe in a ditch he bides,
With twenty trenched gashes on his head. — Macbeth^
(16) We have scotched the snake, not kill'd it :
She '11 close and be herself, whilst our poor malice
Remains in danger of her former tooth. — Macbeth.
(17) After life's fitful fever he sleeps well. — MachetK
(18) ^' Macbeth does murder sleep " — the innocent sleep,
Sleep that knits up the ravell'd sleeve of care.
Macbeth.
(19) Though Bimam wood be come to Dunsinane,
And thou opposed, being of no woman bom,
Yet I will try the hxHt. — Macbeth.
FIGURES OP SPEECH 361
(20) Why, I was all of a tremble ; it was as if I 'd been a
coat pulled by the two tails, like. — Eliot : Silas Mamer.
(21) My father was n't quite so ready to unstrings as some
fathers I know of. — EuoT : Silas Mamer.
(22) Our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting.
WOBDSWOBTH.
(23) The red rose cries, ^' She is near, she is near ; "
And the white rose weeps, ^' She is late ; "
The hirkspar listens, '^ I hear, I hear ; "
And the lily whispers, '^ I wait" — Tennyson : Matid.
(24) Therefore I summon age
To grant youth's heritage,
Life's struggle having so far reached its term :
Thence shall I pass, approved
A man, for aye removed
Prom the developed brute ; a God though in the germ.
Brownino : Babbi Ben Ezra.
2. In the selections in Ex. 1, change each simile to a
metaphor ; each metaphor to a simile.
8. Name the words used metaphorically in Ex. 1 and
give their literal meaning.
4. Bring to class any expressions which you have heard
which seem to you to have poetic value. Do you discover
any figures of speech in them ?
5. Point out and explain any other figures of speech in
the selections quoted in Chapter XII.
CHAPTER XIV
PROSODY
227. Verse and Prose. Verse,^ as a species of
writing, is distinguished from prose by three facts :
(1) that each line is limited to a definite number of
accents, according to the kind of verse used ; (2) that
the accents recur at regular intervals; (3) that
there is regular variation between accented and un-
accented syllables. Prose, on the other hand, has an
unlimited line and the accents occur haphazard
Observe the accents :
(1) Gome, and trip it as yoa go,
9 f 9 f
On the light fantastic toe.
99 99
(2) Like the leaves of the forest when Sammer is green,
9 9 9 9
That host with their hanners at sanset were seen.
In (1) the accent comes on the first syllable and is
followed by one unaccented syllable ; in (2) the ac-
cented syllable is preceded by two unaccented syl-
lables. In each case the line is limited to four
accents.
228. Rhythm. Rhythm in poetry is the regular
recurrence of accented syllables. When a line has a
1 It should be carefully noted that verse is here concerned solely
with the mechanical features of poetry.
PROSODY 863
succession of accents with a fixed ratio between ac-
cented and unaccented syllables^ there is rhythm.
We have rhythm also when the unaccented syllables
vary in number but the same time value is given to
the unaccented part. Thus in § 227; That host and
Like the leaves have the same time value for the un-
accented partS; although in the former phrase there
is one syllable, in the latter two.
229. Foot and Meter. The poetic line, then, con-
sists of a definite unit of measure called the foot.
In § 227, (1) this measure consists of one accented
syUahle followed by one unaccented syllable ; as,
/ / /
trip it ; | light fan | tastic
In (2) the measure consists of an accented syllable
preceded by two unaccented syllables ; as,
if 9
Like the leaves | of the for | est when Sam-
We may represent these measures or feet in
diagram:
^ V W V ^
trip it ; like the leaves.
The arrangement of lines of poetry into feet is
called meter. The kind of foot used determines the
kind of meter.
230. The feet commonly used in English poetry are
the iambus, trochee, anapest, dactyl, spondee, and
amphibrach.
1. The iambus consists of an accented syllable, pr0-
ceded by one unaccented syllable ; as, about ; report ;
364 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
The cor | few tolls | the knell | of part | ing daj.
2. The trochee consists of an accented syllable/oZZotoecI
by (me unaccented syllable ; as, happy ; honor ;
Tell me | not in | moamfol | nambers.
8. The anapest consists of an accented syllable j9re-
ceded by two unaccented syllables ; as, lemonade; persevere,
I am lord | of the fowl | and the brute.
4. The dactyl consists of an accented syllable followed
by two unaccented syllables ; as, silently; formula;
This is the | forest pri | meval. The | murmuring | pines and the
5. The spondee consists of two syllables, either one of
which may be accented. It may take the place of an ana-
pest or dactyl, the one unaccented syllable of the spondee
receiving as much time as the two unaccented syllables of
the dactyl or anapest ; as, prepay : defy ;
in breeze | or gale | or storm.
6. The amphibrach consists of an accented syllable
having one unaccented syllable before and one following
it; as, amendment; delightful ;
Indeed I I was half bro I ken hearted.
PEOSODT 366
7. The iambus and the anapest are alike in having the
accented syllable at the end of the foot ; the trochee and
the dactyl are alike in having the accented syllable at the
beginning of the foot. For this reason a line may mingle
trochees and dactyls or iambuses and anapests. Trochees
are never mingled with iambuses in the same line.
231. Varieties of Meter. The meter is named from
the prevailing foot used in a given line ; that is, we
have iambic, trochaic, anapestic, dactylic, and amphi-
brachic meter. No lines are wholly made up of spon-
dees ; therefore no meter is named from them.
232. Kinds of Verse. The kind of verse is de-
termined by the kind of meter and the number of
feet to the line. The line may have from one to six
feet and is accordingly named monometer, dimeter^
trimeter, tetrameter, pentameter, or hexameter. This
makes possible at least six varieties of verse for each
meter. A line with one iambus, is an iambic mono-
meter ; with two, an iambic dimeter ; and so for the
other meters.
The kinds of verse in most frequent use are illusr
trated below :
1. Iambic Trimeter
Diagrams v -^ | w -^ | v -^ |
f f »
A land-breeze shook the shroodsy
And she was overset :
Down went the Royal Greorgey
/ f /
With all her crew complete. — Cowfeb.
366 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
2. Iambic Tetrameter
Diagram =sw-^|v-^|v-^|w-^|
/ / 9 9
How deep the brave who sink to rest
9 9 9 9
By all their country's wishes blest ! — Collins.
8. lambve Pentameter
Diagram =:v-^|w-^|v-£|v-^|w^|
9 9 9 9 9
The curfew tolls the knell of parting day,
9 9 9 9 9
The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea,
9 9 9 9 9
The plowman homeward plods his weary way,
9 9 9 9 9
And leaves the world to darkness and to me. — Gray.
4. lamhic Hexameter
Diagram = v-^|w-^|w-^|v-^|w-^|v^|
i 9 9 9 9 9
• Thou most lying slave,
/ 9 9 9 9 9
Whom stripes may move, not kindness I I have used thee,
9 9 9 9 9 9
Filth as thou art, with human case, and lodged thee
9 9 9 9 9 9
In mine own cell, till thou didst seek to violate
9 9 9 9 9 9
The honor of my child — The Tempest.
5. Th>chaic Trimeter
Diagram = -^ v | -^ v | -^ w |
Hail to thee, blithe spirit!
9 9 9
Bird thou never wert,
9 9 9
That from heaven, or near it,
9 9 /
Ponrest thy full heart.
Shelley : To a SkylarL
PROSODY 867
6. Trochaic Tetrameter
f 9 i t
Tell me not in moornf ol nomben,
9 9 9 9
Life is bat an empty dream ;
9 9 9 i
For the soul is dead that slambers
9 9 9 9
And things are not what they seem.
Longfellow.
Tennyson's ^^ Locksley Hall " has a double trochaic tetra-
meter; it divides easily in the middle and is like the
tetrameter in every respect :
/ / 9 9 9 9-
Comrades, leave me here a little, whUe as yet
9 9
*% is early morn ;
9 9 9 9 9
Leave me here, and when you want me, sound
9 9 9
upon the bugle-horn.
7. Anapestic Tetrameter
Diagram = wv-^|vv2|vv-^|wv-^|
9 9 9 9
For the angel of Death spread his wings on the blast,
9 9 9 9 ,
And breathed in the face of the foe as he passed. — Btbon.
8. Dactylic Dimeter
Diagram = -^ w w | -^ v v |
9 9
Cannon to right of them,
/ 9
Cannon to left of them. — Tennyson.
868 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
9. Dactylic Hexameter
Diagram »-£ww MwvMww|-evwU«,v|
9 9 f r 9
This ifl the forest primevaL The murumring pines
9
and the hemlocks. — LovaFSLLOW.
10. Amphibrachic Trimeter
Diagram =v-£v|w-£w|w-£w/|
9 9 9
You '11 come to our ball ; — since we parted
9 9 9
I 've thought of jon more than I '11 saj i
9 9 9
Indeed I was half broken hearted
9 9 9
For a week when thej took yon away* — Prabd.
233. Variations within the Verse. The same rhythm
repeated throughout a long poem without variation
becomes monotonous. By the occasional substitution
of a different foot, the regularity of accent is broken
and the rhythm is made more pleasing. You will find
such substitutions in all poetry. Note the variations
in the following :
9 9 9 9 '
(1) I sift the snow on the mountains below,
99 9 9
And their great pines groan aghast;
99 99
And all the night 'tis my pillow white
f 9 9
While I sleep in the arms of the blast
9 9 99
Snblime on the towers of my skyey bowers^
/ 9 f
Lightning my pilot sits;
PBOSODT 369
In a cavern onder is fettered the thunder,
f 9 9
It stmggles and howls at fits. — ShelIiBI*
9 9 9 9
(2) And Christabel saw the lady's eye,
9 9 9 9
And nothing else saw she thereby,
9 9 9 9
Save the boss of the shield of Sir Leoline taD,
9 9 9 9
Which hong in a murky old niche in the walL
9 9 9 9
O softly tread, said Christabel,
9 9 9 9
My father seldom sleepeth well.
CoLEBiDaB: ChristaheL
334. Rhyme. Rhyme is the correspondence of the
sounds of the words at the ends of lines of poetry.
Words are said to rhyme when they answer the fol-
lowing conditions :
1. The accent must fall on the rhyming syllable:
aS; hark, remark.
2. The rhyming syllable must have approximately
the same sound ; as lungs, tongues; air, prayer.
3. The rhyming words should difPer ; mark and
remark, sea and see, do not make acceptable rhymes.
235. Blank and Heroic Verse. Iambic pentameter
is called blank verse when it is unrhymed. It is
found in Shakespeare's dramas, in Milton^B Para-
dise Lost, in Tennyson's Idylls of the King, and
elsewhere.
When iambic pentameter is rhymed, it is called
370 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
heroic verse. It is used by Pope, Goldsmith, Swin-
burne, and many other poets.
336. The Stanza. A single line of poetry is called
a werse. Two or more rhymed lines of verse may
constitute a stanza. There are six principal kinds of
stanzas: the couplet, the quatrain, the sestet, the
octave, the Spenserian stanza, and the sonnet.
1. I%e couplet consiBtB of two rhymed lines using any
meter; as,
Bkjfme Fammta
Be not the first by whom the new are tried, a
Nor yet the last to lay the old aside. — Pope, a
2. The quatrain consists of four lines, of which the
first rhymes with the third and the second with the fourth.
Anj meters may be used ; as,
Bhyme Fanmda
Sonset and evening star, a
And one clear call for me ! b
And may there be no moaning of the bar, a
When I pat out to sea. — Tennyson. b
The quatrain may also be arranged so that the first line
rhymes with the fourth, the second with the third. This
type is used in Tennyson's In Memoriam. Bhyme formula :
abba,
8. ITie sestet has six lines without metrical restrictions.
The rhymes are variously arranged into two or three
groups. In Shelley's ^^ Hellas" the rhyme formula is
ab ab cc. Any arrangement is permissible ,* bs^ abb a
ccorabcabc.
4. The octave has eight lines with no metrical restric-
tions. It is also known as ottava rima. The rhymes are
PROSODY 371
^Farionsly arranged ; perhaps the commonest arrangement
is the rhyme of alternate lines. Rhyme formula : ab ab
cd cd.
5. I%e Spenserian stanza consists of nine lines and is
so called because it was first used by Edmund Spenser in
The Faerie Queen. It has the first eight lines in iambic
pentameter ; the last line is an iambic hexameter, also
called an Aleocandrine. The rhymes are in three groups ; as,
Rhyme Formula
That ancient Beadsman heard the prelude soft ; a
And so it chanced, for many a door was wide, b
From harry to and fro. Soon, np aloft, a
The silver, snarling trampets 'gan to chide : b
The level chambers, ready with their pride, b
Were glowing to receive a thousand guests : c
The carvM angels, ever eager-eyed, b
Stared, where upon their heads the cornice rests, c
With hair blown back, and wings put crosswise
on their breasts. c
Modern poets are taking great liberty with the stanza,
especially in using a variety of meters in the same stanza.
The Spenserian stanza is restrictive and not often used.
6. The Sonnet. The sonnet consists of fourteen iambic
pentameter lines, having the rhymes arranged thus :
abb a a c c a; d e d eff
OP
abb a^ace a; d ef^ d ef
The sonnet form was imported into England from Italy.
Shakespeare used it with his own variations of form, while
Milton was faithful to the Italian model.
The sonnet has the added peculiarity that the first eight
lines form a unit of thought, stating the theme. The last
372 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
BIX are a speoifio application. This feature, again, is not
always obsenred by poets. See page 319 for Milton's son-
net ''On bis Blindness.''
EXEBGISE 63
1. Bring to class a poem from a current magazine and
be prepared to explain its metrical form.
2. Learn Milton's sonnet '' On bis Blindness " ; analyze
its form.
3. Write a couplet, a quatrain, and a sonnet.
4. Write ten or more lines of blank verse, or tbe same
number of heroic verse.
5. Study the stanza used by Browning in ''Herv^
Biel." Outline its metric peculiarities.
6. Explain the metrical qualities of Van Dyke's '' Ode
to Music," in Music and Other Poems.
APPENDIX A
SENTENCES FOR CORRECTION
The following sentences are to be corrected; or im-
proved from the standpoint of unity, coherence, and em-
phasis.
1. In the country of the Camisards everybody seems to be a
friend and vras willing to help you in any way.
2. A dramatic club would afford amusement and at the same
time be instructive for the pupil.
3. The poem was written shortly after he left college; in
many respects it is his greatest work.
4. For Eppie's sake he was led back into the church, at first
to have her christened, then as she grew older, he accompanied
her to church and his old faith came back to him.
6. Everybody had the privilege of choosing some occupation
which they would do when they were not at prayers.
6. The drama first originated in the church where the plays
were taken from the stories of the Bible in order to make people
understand them more clearly.
7. Great care must be taken in protecting the young trees
and it is done by the natives who are specially trained.
8. The question for debate must be carefully worded being
sure that the sides are as equally balanced as possible.
9. He was striking out with all his might against the wind.
10. As we approached, running breathlessly, our opponents
appeared from the underbrush.
11. We are positively certain that that is not the man you
meant and who was in high favor at court.
12. They carefully righted the machine and as they were
874 raGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
examining the damages, the throDg that ia asnallj present ae
soon as aa accident ocean hegan to gather.
13. This theme, the straggle between Virtae and Tempta-
tion, with Virtae victorioas in the end, is developed in the poem
in that the poem relates the adventares of the Lady represent-
ing yirtae, in the woods after having been left by her brothers.
14. Many schools, both preparatory and finishing have pos-
sessed dramatic clabs and they have proved to be a success.
16. The Aurora Borealis frequently presents the appearance
of arches or streamers which are in constant motion and was
thought by Franklin to be electrical discharges.
16. They are the type of men called deep thinkers, men that
are not affected by false pleas of lawyers or jump at conclusions.
17. One should belong to a debating club in high school
because it teaches one the right way to argue and tends to close
thinking.
18. Just as he is about to force her to drink from the cap,
the brothers who had been informed of their sister's danger by
the spirit who represented divine aid rush in but failing to do
as the spirit told them, Comus turns the Lady into a statue.
19. They offer to take him to a place of safety, and he think-
ing his situation could not be more dangerous than it already
was, accepts their courtesy.
20. The statement that pupils are too worn out at examina-
tion time to do justice to themselves and the work they have
done, is unsound for this very seldom happens.
21. We are taken by the author to the Tabard Inn where
we are introduced to the pilgrims who, later on, are to tell the
tales, and Chaucer in his inimitable description filled with kindly
humor brings out the salient characters of each.
22. The burden of proof rests upon the affirmative side of
this question to show : first, that the people demand initiative
and referendum ; second, the principles of representative gov*
SENTENCES FOR CORRECTION 375
eminent are not destroyed and weakened by its adoption ; third,
its adoption would not lead to great evils.
23. The ice jam was in a little village which we saw and it
{>layed great havoc for miles.
24. Each of the books that are iying on my desk contain the
reference you seek.
25. They are idle worthless fellows who, sometimes, do con*
siderable damage to buildings and freight-cars or wherever they
happen to stray.
26. His was a remarkable personality and his listeners were
always held spellbound.
27. I entered the sanctuary, but found to my sorrow, that
others were there already and I could not dream and meditate
as I had anticipated.
28. The youth was proud and dignified by nature, and as ha
seemed to be unnecessarily humiliated, I felt sorry for him.
29. Mary received a delicious basket of fruits which was sent
by her classmates and was packed with great care.
30. James told his father he would miss his train if he did
itiot hurry.
31. Arriving at our destination a most unusual spectacle
greeted our eyes.
32. The entertainment was unusual ; but we enjoyed it thor-
oughly.
S3. When some of the books on the shelves become badly
worn from usage, this money is spent to have them rebound and
sometimes new ones are bought.
34. After incessant pleas to rulers of surrounding nations he
applied to Queen Isabella who favored his plan through the in-
fluence of a priest with whom Columbus had made a friend.
35. He managed to become educated in some sciences and
he had a desire to become a sailor, after Which he took up the
idea to sail west in search of a shorter route to the East Indies.
376 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
36. There are many benefits deriyed from oat-door life inch
M hnilding np the body as well as the mmd and help a boy to
do things that are worth while.
37. The family invited me to join them on a three weeks' an>
tomobOe trip, which I was glad to accept.
38. He was generoas and thoughtful ; for he was always help-
ing some one giving both time and money.
39. He should be told the club's grievance against him and
given a chance to redeem himself, instead of our dropping his
name from the roll of members.
40. Let us do what we can to advance the cause ; we should
let slip no opportunity of impressing its importance upon our
otizens.
41. He announced that all unsold tickets be brought to the
office ; and that all pupils who had not yet obtained their tickets
could do so at the close of sehooL
APPENDIX B
SOUNDS, LETTERS, Ain> SYLLABLES
1. Symbols, sounds, or gestures, used by man to com-
municate thought, produce language. When language
confines itself to a definite set of sounds for oral speech
and adopts a definite set of symbols for written communi-
cation, its rules of usage may be classified and arranged
for study. English grammar is the orderly arrangement
of the facts and rules of usage of the English language.
2. The English language confines itself to a set of dis-
tinct sounds for oral speech. Some of these are sometimes
minutely distinguished, but for our purpose the following
forty-eight sounds are sufficient :
21 vocal or yoiced sounds, pure tones modified but not
interrupted by the organs of speech.
15 aonantSy sounds or tones modified and interrupted
by the organs of speech.
12 surdsj sounds consisting of breath modified by the
organs of speech.
3« These forty-eight sounds are regularly represented
by twenty-six different letters or symbols, called the Eng*
lish alphabet :
6 vowdSi letters used to represent Yocal or voiced
sounds : a, e, i, o, u, y.
20 consonants^ letters used to represent sonants and
surds: b, o, d, f, g, h, j, k, 1, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, ▼, w.
378 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
4. Table of sounds and letters
I. The Vowds
Letten
a
a -
Sound
modifications
EquivalmtB
shotvn by toordt
& long
ft short
as in file (e in they)
« ftm
ft long, narrow
n
cftre
ft open, narrow
a open, wide
a broad
it
u
it
firm
ask
an
S long
S short
eve (i in machine)
6nd
6 short, wide
<l
Urn
I long
I short
it
Ice (y in try)
111 (y in hymn)
o long
h short
5ld
Odd
u long
li short
it
it
fise
«p
oo long
do short
it
tt
food
foot
oo
oi oi " oil
on oa ** out
y y long " try
y short ** hymn
SPELLING
8'
n. The Consonants.
* Sonants
\HMK»m
Sound
Equivalents
vvuru
modifications
shown by words
b
b
as in bid
d
d
" did
g
g
" get
i
](g)
" joy (g i° ging«r)
1
1
" let
i!d
m
" met
n
n
« net
ng
** ring
p
p
« run
ih
th
" then
T
« vim
W
" wet
y
« yet
z
« gaze (s in was).
zh
" azure
HI. The Consonants:
Surds
HfflPM
Sound
Equivalents
bVv/9
modifications
shown by words
f
f
as in fan
h
h
« hat
k
k(c)
<< kite (c in cat)
p
P
" pin
s
8(5)
<• 80 (5 in ^eU)
t
t
" tin
ih
th
" thin
ch
ch
« chart
8h
8h
" shun
z
ks
* box
qu
kw
« quell
qa
k
** bouqaet
380 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
5* Some letters serve to represent more than one somid*
The several sonnds are distinguished by the nse of dia-
eritical marks ; as,
The macron as i The diflaresis as &
The breve as X The eediUa as 9
The caret as & The dot as a, a
The sounds indicated by each mark are shown in § 4
above. The disBresis is used also to show that two vowels
usually taken together are to be pronounced separately ; as,
oooperate, reelect.
6« Consonants are oral^ sounded through the mouth;
and naaalj sounded through the nose.
1. The oral consonanU are p, t, k, b, w, v, d, th, g, f , ch.
2. The nasal consonants are m, n, ng.
7* Consonants are also classified as mutes, liquids, semi*
yowels, and sibilants.
1. Mutes are letters representing obstructed or stopped
sounds, and are classified according to the organ of ob-
struction. Pure mutes begin with complete stoppage of
breath; sonant mutes are accompanied by voiced sounds;
and fricative mutes are accompanied by rough, guttural
sounds.
T<Me of Mutes
Clots Pure Sonant
.FWooeJiw
Labial p b, y, w
lingnal or dental t d, th
Palatal k, e g
f
th
eh(eboir)
2. Liquids are letters whose sound flows readily into
the sound of other letters. They are 1, m, n, ng.
8. The semi-vowels are w and y. The sound of w is
equivalent to 00 or Sd ; the sound of y is equivalent to 5
orT.
SPELLING . 381
4. SihUants are the hissing sounds s, sh, z, ch (church),
8* Some letters are regularly used together; they
either unite to form a single sound or only one of the
letters is sounded.
The diphthong is the union of two vowels to form a
single sound ; as, oi, ou, oy, ow.
The vowd digraph is the union of two vowels, only
one of which is sounded ; as, ea in each, oa in coat, ua in
guard.
The consonant digraph is the union of two consonants
to form a single sound ; as, ch, sh, th, and gh (in cough).
SPELLING: SYLLABLES AND WORDS
9* A syllable is the portion of a word requiring a single
muscular effort of the organs of speech in pronunciation ;
as, come, be-come, be-com-ing.
10. The following rules for dividing words into their
component syllables will be found helpful in spelling and
in pronunciation. They must be observed in dividing
words at the end of a written or printed line.
I. Words of one syllable cannot be divided.
11. The letters of diphthongs and digraphs cannot be
separated.
III. The following consonants never end a syllable : c
and ^, as in ra-cing, rarging, warger, re-cite ; ^, 8, sc, J, ^,
when pronounced with a following i or u^ as in na-tion,
vi-sion, vi-sual, fu-ture, con-science, reli-gion, proce-dure.
Exception : When e and g follow short vowels, as in rec*
itatioD, prec-ipice, reg-iment
IV. The following consonants never begin a syllable:
x=^ -ksoT -gs as in box-ing ; r preceded by d, as in par-ent;
/i n, t;^ followed by i « yy as in val-iant| un-ioD| Sav-ior.
382 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
V. Compound words are separated; as, foot-stooL
Vowels not forming a diphthong are separated ; as, a-erial,
Bci-ence, joy-ous.
VL Prefixes and suffixes are separated from the basal
word ; as, lead-er, mak-er, mis-take, dress-es.
VJLL When a single consonant or digraph stands be-
tween two sounded Yowels, it forms a syllable with the
second vowel ; as, wsrter, farther.
< ExcBPTiONS : When the preceding yowel is short and under
accent, the single consonant or digraph forms a syllable with it ;
as, hab-it, wom^n, pon-ish, leath-er.
Vm. When two or more consonants stand between
two sounded vowels, all may form a syllable ¥rith the fol-
lowing vowel ; as, o-blige, i-dle, ha-tred, peo-ple.
ExGSFnONS: 1. When the preceding vowel is short or ao>
cented, as in tab-let, indns-try.
2. When the consonants cannot be pronounced with the foI«
lowing vowel, as in an-gel, fer-tile, in-jury.
IX. When a consonant is doubled, the word is divided
between these two letters; as bat-ter, rob-ber, at-tack,
es-say.
II. The sounds given in § 4 and the rules of syllabica-
tion in § 10 above, will give a basis for the correct pro-
nunciation of words, but it is important to observe the
oral speech of educated persons. The individual word
must be observed, and whenever in doubt about its pro-
nunciation, refer to a good dictionary. Give sufficient
time to each syllable, and especially to final syllables.
Strive to make each word clear and distinct.
ExERasE 1
Learn the correct pronunciation of the following
words:
SPELLING
3
ftbdomen
elms
insult
progress
accept
except
introduce
pumpkin
acclimate
exquisite
lamentable
quarrel
across
family
laugh
recognize
admirable
February
literature
revocable
adult
finance
memory
saucy
algebra
fortunate
nature
several
alHes
gape
nothing
shaft
apparatus
genuine
object
singing
athletics
geography
once
spirit
attacked
goyemment
opponent
tedious
avenue
hearth
participle
temperament
bade
hospitable
partner
twice
biography
hundred
pathos
vagary
children
idea
patriot
verdure
column
immediately
poetry
when
defect
impious
precedence
which
deficit
incomparable
privily
why
depths
inquiry
process
with
drowned
inspiration
produce
yonder
Exercise 2
Divide the following words into syllables :
supervise speaker
hatband aeronaut
mantle master
record rabbit
later hatter
boxes enter
promote abject
rectify selection
supreme leather
radiant precedent
rather teacher
recipe master
12. The following
roles for spelling may be used for
reference.
I. Monosyllables and words accented on the last sylla-
ble, when ending in
a single consonant preceded by a
I
I
884 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
single vowel, double the final oonsonant before a Bufiiz ,
beginning with a yowel ; as, hot-ter, bag-gage, inf er-red, i
begin-ning.
U. Words ending in double consonants retain both
oonsonants before a suffix ; as, f ull-ness, skill-fulness, will-
ful, will-fulness. (See § 18, x.)
III. Words ending in silent 6,
(1) Betain e before a suffix beginning with a consonant,
except when the silent e is preceded by a yowel ; as hate-
ful, achieve-ment ; but, tru-ly, du-ly.
(2) Drop the e before suffixes beginning with a vowel,
except when dropping the e would cause a c or ^ to pre-
cede an a or o and become hard ; as us-age, com-ing ; but
peace-able and advantage-ous.
lY. Words ending in ie, drop the e and change the %
into y before a suffix ; as, die, dy-ing ; tie, ty-ing.
V. Words ending in y,
(1) Change ytoi before a suffix if the y is preceded
l>y a consonant ; as, pity, piti-f ul ; happy, happi-ness.
(2) Betain the y if it is preceded by a vowel ; as joy-f ul.
Exceptions : daily, laid, paid, said, shun.
13. Many English words are taken from foreign lan-
guages and have preserved their foreign form without
change; others have suffered modifications. Very many
English words still retain a spelling which is unlike the
sounds given them by pronunciation. Simplified spelling,
or phonetic spelling, seeks to establish a reasonable corre-
spondence between pronunciation and spelling. Spelling
is slow to respond because it is fixed by the written and
printed word-form, but phonetic spelling is making pro-
gress and has the authority of good usage.
Below are given the phonetic forms which are now com-
SPELLING 385
monly accepted, and the rules according to which these
forms have become established and according to which
other words are shaping themselves.
L Words with ae not final, prefer e; as, anesthetic, chimera^
era, esthetic, ether, medieval, paleontology.
IL -ed final, becomes t ; as, blest, curst, dreamt, burnt.
III. -enc6 or ^enae final, prefer ^enae y as, defense, offense,
pretense, license.
IV. -^tte final, becomes -et / as, epaulet, etiquet, omelet, quar*
tet, quintet.
V. gh ==/, becomes/; as draft.
gh silent, becomes ow or o ; as, plow, the, thro, altho.
YI. -He final and unaccented, becomes -U; as, civil, fossil,
atensil, vigil.
YII. 'ine final and unaccented, becomes -in; as, assassin,
cabin, margin, origin, ruin, vermin, virgin.
VIII. -ise or -i«e, prefer -i«a / as, civilize, criticize, organize,
legalize, analyze.
IX. "ite final and unaccented, becomes -it ; as, audit, credit,
decrepit, demerit, discredit, exhibit, explicit, habit, hermit, im»
plicit, inhabit, inherit, limit, merit, prohibit, spirit, visit.
X. 41 or -Z, prefer -l ; as, distil, fulfil, until, compel, impel.
XI. 'Oe or -6, prefer -e; as, esophagus, phenix, subpena,
economy.
XXL -our or -or, prefer -or / as, ardor, clamor, color, favor,
honor, humor, labor, rumor, valor.
XIII. -re or -er, prefer -er / as, center, meter, scepter, spec-
ter, theater.
XIV. 'Ue silent, after ^, drops 'Ue ; as, catalog, pedagog, pro-
log.
XV. -7717716, drops -9716 / as, diagram, program.
XVI. -dge-menty drops e; as, abridgment, judgment, ao*
knowledgment, lodgment.
386 HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH
The namber of words to be included under the above
rules ^ depends upon usage. Those given above are fairly-
established, and good usage is gradually adding others.
*■ These roles and others are nrged by the ** Simplified Spelling
Board/' and a total of 3300 words are now (June, 1910) proposed
for phonetio spelling.
INDEX
Abbreviations, 227.
Abstracts, 23.
Addison, Joseph, 318, 320.
-^isop, 85.
Allegory, 366.
Alliteration, 357.
Amphibrach, 364.
Analogy, 193.
Anapest, 364.
Anecdotes, 31.
Anglo-Saxon, 223, 224, 230, 231.
Antithesis, 358.
Antonyms, 242.
A posteriori reasoning, 192.
Apostrophe, 53, 355.
A priori reasoning, 192.
Argument, 176.
assertion and proof in, 183.
brief, the, in, 209.
by advantage and disadvantage,
187.
by combination of methods, 194.
by examples, 188.
by specific instances, 188.
debate, 217.
deductive reasoning, 199.
definition and use, 176.
enthymeme, 201.
evidence in, 185.
from analogy, 193.
from cause and effect, 191.
from sign, 192.
inductive reasoning, 197.
logic, the basis of, 176.
major and minor premise, 200.
narration, description, and exposi-
tion in, 177.
order of, 207,
parts of, 208.
persuasion in, 214.
presentation of proof in, 184.
proof and refutation in, 184.
proposition in, 182.
questions of fact, theory and policy
in, 206.
syllogism, the, 200.
tests of, 194.
Austin, Jane, 108.
Bacon, Sir Francis, 340.
BaUad, the, 330.
Balzac, Honors, 99*
Barbarisms, 245.
Biography and criticism, 310.
Blackmore, Richard D., 290. -
Blank verse, 369.
Blind Milton Dictating Paradise Lost
to His Daughters, facing 319.
Burroughs, John, 129.
Bradford, Gamaliel, Jr., 157.
Brief, the, 209.
Brooks, Phillips, 63.
Browning, Elizabeth Barrett, 327.
Browning, Robert, 24, 30, 77.
Bryce, James, 163.
Bunyan, John, 230.
Burke, Edmund, ia5, 188, 193, 266,
285,286.
Byron, Lord Gordon Noel, 31, 136.
Capitalization, 37.
Carlyle, Thomas, 133, 266.
Celtic, 228, 229.
Characterization, in description, 131*
in narration, 101.
Chinese, the, 229,
INDEX
17.
Climax, in the dnuna, 33i.
in narration, 91.
Coherence, in deacription, 127.
in exposition, 148.
in narration, 91.
iu the paragraph, 283.
in the sentence, 271.
in the whole composition, 287.
Coleridge, Samnel Taylor, 97, 100.
Colon, the, 48.
Collins, William, 328. .
Comedy, 331.
Comma, the, 42.
Composition, definition of, 9.
oral, 9.
kinds of, 10.
conyersation in, 10.
contractions in, 16.
written, 67.
Conneotiyes, 262, 283, 287.
Consonants, sonants, 379.
snrd8,379.
Conyersation in narration, 103.
Cooper, James Fenimore, 260.
Conplet, 370.
Critical essays, 340.
Criticism, 304.
biography and, 310.
character of the writer, 311.
matter and form in, 307.
mood of the writer, 309.
purpose of the writer, 313.
standard of judgment, 308.
writer's yiew of life, 312.
Curtis, George William, 189.
Dactyl, the, 364.
Dana, Charles H., 136.
Darwin, Charles, 199.
Dash, the, 61.
Debate, 217.
Deductiye reasoning, 199.
Definition and exposition, 168.
Description, 111.
and exposition, 146.
and pictnres, 112.
artistic, 130.
coherence in, 127.
comparison and contrast in, 134.
definition of, HI.
exact, 130.
expression in, 133.
fundamental image in, 120.
grouping of details in, 127.
impressionistic, 131.
in argument, 177.
in narration, 98.
kinds of, 130.
obserration m, 115.
of persons, 131.
order of obsenration in, 118.
point of interest in, 122.
point of yiew in, 116.
purpose of, 111.
selection of details in, 122.
suggestive, 130.
time in, 129.
unity in, 122.
Dickens, Charles, 103, 112, 128, 349.
Dictionary, the, 229, 233, 240, 242.
Discourse, forms of, 80.
Drama, the, 331.
catastrophe in, 336.
climax in, 334.
falling moyement in, 334.
introduction in, 333.
parts of, 332.
rising moyement in, 333.
Dramatic forms, 336.
farce, the, 336.
interludes, the, 336.
masque, the, 336.
miracle plays, 336.
morality plays, 335.
Dramatic poetry, 330.
Sggleston, Edward, 317.
Elegy, the, 327.
Eliot, George, 121, 130.
Ellis, Havelock, 158.
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 277, 317.
INDEX
Emotional words, 243.
Fiinphasis in the sentence, 272.
English language, 223.
Enthymeme, 201.
Enunciation, 16.
Epic poetry, 329.
Essay, the, 338.
style in, 339.
classes of, 339.
Exclamation point, 50.
EziMMsition, 145.
analysis in, 162.
and description, 145.
arrangement of details in, 148*
by definition, 158.
clearness in, 147.
coherence in, 148.
comparison used in, 160.
definition and field of, 145.
details in, 147.
in argument, 177.
interpretation as function of, 166.
methods of, 165.
outline in, 148.
selection of details in, 147.
unity in, 147.
Fable, 356.
Faroe, the, 335.
Figures of speech, 351.
Fiske, John, 298.
Foot in verse, 363.
Franklin, Benjamin, 216, 252, 346.
French, 224.
Frugal Meal, The, facing 77.
Gaskell, Mrs., 42.
German, 228, 229.
Goldsmith, Oliyer, 320.
Gordy, W. F., 81.
Grady, Henry W., 180.
Grahiune, Kenneth, 290.
Grammar, 244, 254.
Gray, Thomas, 115, 326.
Greek, 227.
Green, John Richard, 124, 292.
Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 92, 137, 238.
Heam, Lafcadio, 117, 135, 291.
Hebrew words, 227.
Henry, Patrick, 264.
Hexameter, 366.
Histories of words, 231.
Hoar, George F., 216.
Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 30, 278.
Homonyms, 242.
Hudson, W. H., 180.
Hunt, Leigh, 289.
Hunter's Story, The, facing 109.
Hyperbole, 357.
Hyphen, the, 54.
Iambus, 363.
Indian, the, 229.
Inductive reasoning, 197.
Informal essays, 240.
Impersonal writing, 314.
Interlude, the, 335.
Interpretation, 166.
Interrogation, 357.
point, 50.
Irving, Washington, 12, 121, 265,
285, 286, 321.
Italian language, 228, 229.
James, William, 231.
Johnson, J. B., 164.
Johnson, Samuel, 317, 318, 344.
Keats, John, 136.
Kipling, Rudyard, 93, 123, 129.
Kittredge, G. L., 300.
Lamb, Charles, 347.
Language, 223.
I>atin, 226.
Laughing Cavalier, The, facing 32.
Letters, 57.
body of, 59.
business, 69.
complimentary closing, the, 60.
formal notes, 68.
friendly, 61.
390
INDEX
heading, tiie, 68.
inf onnal notes, 60.
kinds of, 07.
parts of, 58.
salatation, the, 69.
signature, the, GO.
saperacription, the, 61.
Liquids, 380.
literary Digest, The, 186.
Literary forms, 323.
Logic, 176.
Long, William J., 280.
Longfellow, Henry W., 28, SO.
Lynn, Margaret, 289.
Lyric poetry, 326.
Macanlay, Thomas Bahington, 269,
266,268.
McLaughlin, 294.
Major and minor premise, 200.
Marriage "& la mode," facing 173.
Masque, the, 336.
Matthews, Brander, 161.
Memory work, 28.
Metaphor, the, 363.
mixed, 354.
Meter, 363.
Tarieties of, 366.
Metonymy, 366.
Milton, John, 136, 319, 362.
Miracle plays, 335.
Monometer, 366.
Morality plays, 335.
Mutes, tahle of, 380.
Narration, 80.
action in, 97.
characterization in, 101.
climax in, 91.
coherence in, 91.
conclusion in, 94.
conyersation in, 103.
definition of, 80.
description in, 98.
in argument, 177.
introduction and setting in, 91.
kinds of, IM.
outline in, 83.
plot in, 93.
point of view in, 88.
purpose of, 80.
selection of material in, 88L
time order in, 80.
unity in, 90.
Narratiye essays, 339.
Newman, J. H., 170.
New York Times, The, 186b
Noyel, the, 336.
characters in, 337.
elements of, 336.
plot in, 337.
purpose of, 336.
setting of, 337.
style in, 338.
O'Brien, Fitz-James, 96.
Ode, the, 325.
OnomatoiMBia, 368.
Oral composilion, 9.
essentials of, 17.
granunar in, 14.
kinds of, 10.
Outlook, The, 239.
Palmer, George Herbert, 160, 38L
Paragraphs, 275.
coherence in, 283, 287.
importance of, 276.
length of, 276.
oral, 33.
topic statement in, 276.
transition in, 284, 287, 294.
unity in, 283, 287.
written, 79.
Paragraph deyelopment, 288.
by added details, 287.
by cause and effect, 293.
by combination of methods, 299.
by comparison and contrast, 296.
by repetition, 297.
by specific instances, 291.
Parentheses and brackets, 63.
INDEX
391
Parker, Theodore, 132.
Parkman, Francis, 23, 82, 122.
Pentameter, 366.
Period, the, 50.
Peisonal anecdotes, 31.
Personification, 354.
Persuasion, 214.
Plot, in the novel, 337.
in narration, 93.
Pliny, 62.
Poe, Edgar Allan, 124.
Poetry, forms of, 324.
dramatic, 330.
epic, 329.
lyric, 324, 325.
Polish words, 228, 229.
Pope, Alexander, 309.
Point of view in narration, 88.
in description, 116.
Premise, major and minor, 200.
Proof, 184, 185, 291.
Pronunciation, 15.
Proposition, the, 182.
Prosody, 362.
Provincialisms, 11.
Punctuation, 42.
Quotation marks, 62.
Readings, 238.
Recitation English, 19.
Reflective easaja^ 340.
Refutation, 184.
Reproductions, 23.
Rhetorical question, 275.
Rhythm, 262.
Romance metrical, 329.
Ruskin, John, 119, 160, 287, 296.
Saze, J. G., 202.
Saxon, 224.
Scandinavian, 228, 229.
Scott, Sir Walter, 27, 122, 225.
Semicolon, 47.
Sentences, 254.
as units, 254.
balanced, 267.
coherence in, 271.
complex, 261.
compound, 260.
connectives in, 262.
emphasis in, 272.
for correction, 373.
grammatical correctness in, 254.
kinds of, 258.
long and short, 264.
loose, 265.
advantages of, 266.
periodic, 265.
advantages of, 267.
simple, 259.
structure of, 78.
unity in, 270.
variety in, 273.
Shakespeare, William, 27, 84, 195,
196,220.
Shaw, George Bernard, 159.
Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 135.
Simile, the, 352.
Shmg, 10, 245.
Song of the Lark, The, facing 142.
Sonnet, the, 327.
Spanish language, 228, 229.
Spelling, 381.
Spens, Sir Patrick, 109.
Spondee, the, 363.
Standard of judgment, 308.
Stanza, the, 370.
couplet, 370.
octave, 370.
quatrain, 370.
sestet, 370.
sonnet, 371.
Spenserian, 371.
Stevenson, Robert Louis, 64, 92, 99,
101, 113, 114, 129, 179, 249, 281,
350.
Style, 316, 338, 339.
Swift, Jonathan, 343.
Swift, Morrison I., 178.
Syllogism, 200.
tests and refutation of, 201.
392
INDEX
Syneodoebe, 357.
Synonyms, 241.
Table of sounds and letters, 378.
Talfonrd, 125.
Telegrams, 72.
Tennyson, 31.
Tetrameter, 366.
Topic statement, 34, 276.
position of, 277.
Tragedy, 331.
Tragi-comedy, 332.
Transition, 284.
Translations, 240.
Trimeter, 366.
Trochee, 364.
Tucker, William Jewett, 188.
Tyndall, John, 284.
Unity
in description, 122.
in exposition, 147.
in narration, 90.
in the paragraph, 283.
in the sentence, 270.
in the whole composition, 287.
Van Dyke, Henry, 98.
Variety in diction, 234.
in the sentence, 278.
Verse, 362.
heroic, 369.
kinds of, 365.
yariations within, 368.
Vision, 367.
Vocabulary, 224, 234, 237, 238.
specialized, 236.
Vowels, sound equiyalents, 379.
Walker, Francis Amasa, 192.
Webster, Daniel, 29, 203, 279.
Wilkins, Mary K, 102.
Word histories, 231.
Words, 223.
common, 235, 236.
effectiye, 248.
emotional, 243.
learned, 235.
new, 247.
obsolete, 247.
technical, 236.
the appropriate, 245.
the correct, 243.
the general, 248.
the specific, 248.
Wordsworth, William, 114, 119,
826.
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